Beyond the ethical obligation to treat animals with dignity, ensuring their welfare also translates into tangible benefits for various stakeholders. By prioritising animal welfare, slaughterhouses not only enhance product value but contribute to food safety and product quality, mitigating the risk of contamination and reducing instances of meat spoilage. This commitment to quality assurance not only safeguards consumer health but also enhances consumer trust and loyalty, ultimately resulting in improved economic returns and sustainability for the industry as a whole. 

Towards safer and more ethical slaughter 

To support the safe and ethical slaughter of animals for human consumption, a revised standard on animal welfare during slaughter (chapter 7.5 of the Terrestrial Code) has been adopted by the World Assembly of Delegates during WOAH’s 91st General Session.  

The standard focuses on ensuring good animal welfare conditions during slaughter operations. Notably, it provides animal-based measures to assess the level of welfare and recommends remedial and corrective actions to be applied, when necessary. Including animal welfare indicators is key to support the implementation of the recommendations included in this chapter. Moreover, through comprehensive training and competency measures, the standard emphasises the critical role of personnel in upholding ethical standards and highlights the importance of training in understanding species-specific behaviours, recognising signs of distress, and implementing preventive actions.

Additionally, the standard delves into the impact of premises design and equipment choice on animal welfare, noting considerations such as thermal comfort, ease of movement, and injury prevention. It provides detailed recommendations for handling free-moving animals during unloading and restraint, stressing the significance of preventive equipment, proper lighting, and minimising distractions to reduce stress in animals and ensure humane treatment. Furthermore, the chapter addresses welfare concerns related to stunning, promoting effective methods, along with the monitoring of stunning effectiveness to uphold ethical standards throughout the slaughter process. 

The significance of adopting international standards on animal welfare during slaughter cannot be overstated. It underscores a collective responsibility to ensure ethical treatment throughout the slaughter process, acknowledging that the welfare of animals is not just a moral imperative but a shared obligation. By prioritising animal welfare, stakeholders not only uphold ethical standards but also contribute to the wellbeing of workers and the assurance of product quality.

Furthermore, it is essential to adopt these standards to support Members who do not yet have a regulatory framework in place in this area. Providing a unified and robust set of guidelines helps ensure that all Members, regardless of their current regulatory status, can achieve a high standard of animal welfare. Therefore, it is imperative for all involved parties to protect animal welfare, recognising that doing so benefits not only the animals themselves but also the workers who care for them and the consumers who rely on safe and ethically produced products. 


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Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are emerging as a significant threat to both human and animal health, with recent years seeing a troubling increase in their prevalence and spread. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) has highlighted this growing concern in their latest report “Animal Health Situation Worldwide” covering 2023 and early 2024, presented during its 91st General Session. This analysis brings some additional elements related to the intricate relationship between climate change and the dynamics of VBDs, underscoring the urgent need for effective surveillance and control measures.

Climate change’s impact on
vector-borne diseases (VBDs)

VBDs, which include diseases transmitted by vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and flies, thrive in certain environmental conditions. The climatic conditions of tropical regions make them particularly vulnerable to these diseases. However, climate change is reshaping this landscape, altering vector density, activity periods, and geographical distribution. These changes facilitate the expansion of VBDs into new areas, posing significant risks to previously unaffected regions. 

WOAH’s report on the “Animal Health Situation Worldwide” underscores the complexity of this issue, noting that both biological and non-biological pathways influence VBD transmission. There is clear evidence that climate change is a critical driver in the spread of these diseases. Observational data corroborate this, showing an increasing trend in the maximum latitudes at which VBDs are reported, closely mirroring global temperature anomalies.

Revealing emerging trends 

Data reported through the early warning system of the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), from 2023 and early 2024 (as of 11 March 2024), reveal that VBDs were responsible for a total of 2,422 outbreaks across 28 countries and territories, in the context of exceptional epidemiological events. These events mainly include first occurrences, recurrences and new strains. The Americas notably experienced a large outbreak of western equine encephalomyelitis, with 1,461 outbreaks, while Europe reported 697 outbreaks of various VBDs. 

Of the 90 diseases of terrestrial animals currently listed by WOAH, almost a third are vector-borne (entirely or for which vectors play an important role), some of which have shown a significant evolution in 2023 and early 2024.

Infection with West Nile fever virus, bluetongue virus, lumpy skin disease virus and western equine encephalomyelitis virus were the most frequently reported in 2023 and early 2024, in the context of exceptional events. Infection with lumpy skin disease virus, for which exceptional events were predominant in Asia, accounted for 144 outbreaks, making it the most reported VBD outside Europe and the Americas through early warning. Notably, 99% of these VBD outbreaks in 2023 and early 2024 were detected in temperate regions, indicating a worrying shift in their geographical distribution. 

Monitoring the expansion of VBDs 

These challenges are not new and date back several years. In response, WOAH had launched in 2022 the PROVNA project, aimed at enhancing VBD surveillance in North Africa. This initiative seeks to define ‘ecoregions’ within the study area, identify vulnerable zones, and develop a prototype application to predict climatic and environmental changes.  

A notable case study presented in the report is the recent spread of infection with epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) virus. Traditionally confined to regions like North America and parts of Asia, EHD has expanded its range significantly since 2006, with new reports from countries around the Mediterranean and into Europe. This spread exemplifies the broader trend of VBD expansion driven by climate and environmental changes. 

Taking action for global health 

WOAH’s report paints a vivid picture of the escalating threat posed by vector-borne diseases in the context of climate change. As it stands at its centenary, WOAH reiterates the need for robust surveillance systems, international collaboration, and adaptive strategies to manage this growing challenge. As climate change continues to influence the spread and impact of VBDs, the global community must respond with urgency and innovation to safeguard both human and animal health. Because animal health is our health. It’s everyone’s health. 

For more detailed insights, explore the full report.


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Interview – May 2023

Thanks to the successful implementation of effective control measures, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has turned from a public health emergency of international concern to a disease with contained presence and sanitary impact. First circulated in 2019, a revised standard on the disease has been adopted by the World Assembly of Delegates during WOAH’s 90th General Session.

Covering updates that include the criteria for determining disease risk alongside recommendations for disease surveillance and safe trade, the new text adopted represents a significant achievement. It reflects the work of the Organisation in tackling complex issues, building consensus among Members and finding up-to-date, science-based solutions that are beneficial to both animal and human health.  

The revision of the standard was driven by WOAH Specialist Commissions. We have interviewed Dr Cristóbal Zepeda, President of the Scientific Commission for animal diseases and Dr Etienne Bonbon, President of the Terrestrial Animal Health Standards Commission.   

BSE Standard
L:R – Dr Cristóbal Zepeda, Dr Etienne Bonbon

What is the impact of BSE today? 

Cristóbal Zepeda: At the beginning of the BSE epidemic in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the majority of cases were detected in a few countries, most predominantly in Europe. Today, the incidence of BSE has dropped to nearly zero, as most countries have implemented measures to avoid the recycling of specified risk materials (SRMs). 

Etienne Bonbon: In the past, the uncertainty around the epidemiology of BSE justified an important level of precaution taken to handle the disease. Today, its quasi-zero incidence worldwide minimises the risk of disease and calls for a different level of precaution to face a novel scenario.  

What was the rationale for revising the standard on BSE? 

C.Z.: The standard on BSE was updated to align it with the current scientific knowledge and an evolving epidemiological context. Several changes were proposed. The first one covers the need for a complete disease risk assessment, including entry and exposure assessments, to determine the risk status of a country or a zone. The second one allows for a simplified surveillance to better match with the reality in the field, while ensuring that minimum sanitary requirements are put in place by countries. Indeed, the cost of implementing a point-based surveillance system is significant and some countries with small cattle populations can simply not comply with such requirements. We have developed guidelines to support countries in the transition to this new system. The last important change is the removal of atypical BSE from the list of diseases which require a compulsory notification to WOAH. Atypical BSE occurs spontaneously in cattle populations at a very low rate. In addition, the only evidence of potential recycling of specified risk materials was found under experimental conditions that would be extremely unlikely to be replicated under field conditions.

E.B.: When talking about the changes brought about by the revised standard on BSE, it is important to note that atypical BSE has been delisted also because it was found to be a very rare and sporadic condition, with no significant impact on animal or public health. 

Classical versus atypical BSE

There is a distinction to be made between these two forms, or strains: 

Classical BSE occurs through the consumption of contaminated feed. Whilst classical BSE was identified as a significant threat in the 90s, its occurrence has markedly decreased over the past years and is now estimated to be extremely low.

Atypical BSE refers to naturally and sporadically occurring forms, which are believed to occur in all cattle populations at a very low rate, and which have only been identified in older cattle when conducting intensive surveillance. In the early 2000s, atypical prions causing atypical BSE were identified as the result of enhanced surveillance for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. The number of cases of atypical BSE is negligible. Indeed, whilst to date there is no evidence that atypical BSE plays a significant role in the epidemiology of BSE, the potential for recycling of atypical BSE cannot be ruled out, and therefore measures to manage exposure risk in the feed chain continue to be recommended as a precautionary measure.  

What were the challenges along the way? 

C.Z.: WOAH has a procedure for official recognition of BSE risk status. In the context of the revision of this standard, we had to ensure that the Members already having an official BSE risk status would still remain compliant with the revised BSE standard. This involved a significant work to retrospectively assess the dossiers submitted by these Members, particularly those that were recognised on the basis of a negligible entry assessment and not a negligible exposure assessment.  

E.B.: WOAH strives to find consensus among its Members. The achievement made with the BSE standard is the result of a multi-step process which involved many dedicated expert discussions, extensive consultations with Members, and even a first discussion with the Assembly last year. It shows how the different governance bodies work at the Organisation, and also highlights the role of the Specialist Commissions in the process. These Commissions play a key role to ensure that the standards are scientifically sound, and to build a common understanding trough consultation with Members.   

Will the new BSE standard have an impact on the level of surveillance of the disease? 

C.Z.: WOAH international standards related to the surveillance of animal diseases – including BSE – are crucial to determining the absence, presence and distribution of animal diseases and related risks, as well as detecting emerging diseases as early as possible. In the current epidemiological context for this disease, there was a growing need among Members to have the standard modified.    

E.B.: The justified simplification and cost reduction of surveillance methods will not lead to a reduction in its effectiveness. Rather, this more flexible system based on field clinical screening reflects current scientific information and responds to a diversity of needs across countries. 

What will be the impact of this new standard on international trade? 

C.Z.: The changes in the surveillance requirements will provide an incentive for countries that have not gained an official risk status to apply for one. By removing atypical BSE as a listed disease, countries will not impose unwarranted trade restrictions. 

E.B.: With the adoption of the revised standard, the benefits will be much higher than any risks of disease introduction or emergence. If it is well applied, access to trade will be facilitated thereby accelerating economic development, food security will be improved, while the likelihood of new BSE cases will continue to decrease. 

The interview was edited and condensed for clarity and length.  

Developed alongside Members and horse industry experts, three equine standards are updated to fight against disease threats and respond to the practical needs of international horse competitions. 

Sport and competition horses are seasoned international travellers, hopping from one competition to another across the globe. However, in transit, many can become stuck at the border. International standards are meant to protect the health of the sport horses themselves, as well as a country’s equine population from transmitting diseases across borders. Border controls can prevent sport horses from getting to their competitions on time. Veterinarians and customs officials struggle to find an approach that is fit for purpose, wanting to respect standards that reduce disease risk, and to acknowledge the practical needs of international horse sports.  

Seeing an opportunity to support Members, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) partnered with the horse industry, to find new solutions and ensure the ensure the safety and safe movement of racing and sport horses. WOAH has worked with the International Horse Sports Confederation (IHSC) since 2017 in the framework of a public-private partnership (PPP). Both WOAH and IHSC share clear goals to improve the health and welfare of horses. Namely, to mitigate the risk of the global spread of equine infectious diseases and minimise movement restrictions on competition horses. The collaboration has led to many significant outcomes, with many of the activities leading to the update of three animal health standards, including on equine influenza, contagious equine metritis (CEM), and equine piroplasmosis, presented for adoption at  WOAH’s 90th General Session.  

WOAH’s international standards are science-based, and the horse industry agreed to contribute with resources to improve the overall quality and accuracy of standards related to horses. This included funding scientific research on horse diseases of concern to international trade. For example, in this study funded by the IHSC-WOAH partnership, a WOAH Reference Laboratory conducted an assessment on equine influenza vaccination protocols for horses before international travel. The horse sector has many vaccination schemes for this virus, and this assessment sought to harmonise current equine influenza schemes based on scientific evidence. This ensures that horses who are being transported are both protected, and that they avoid unjustified waiting periods at their destination. During this assessment, the spirit of collaboration even reached the local level. Private equine veterinarians collected and sent the samples necessary for research and worked with a public research laboratory. Based upon the results of the study, the vaccination protocol to move horses internationally was updated in the standard for Equine Influenza.

The private horse industry around the globe also benefited from this partnership, as WOAH provided its expertise as the international authority on animal health to co-develop tools with IHSC to fit the practical needs of horse sports. Bringing together animal disease experts and horse sport experts, IHSC and WOAH developed two tools to facilitate the international movements of competition horses based on the concepts of zoning and compartmentalisation. The first, the High Health, High Performance (HHP) framework, harmonises importation requirements and simplifies certification process for the temporary movements of horses. The second are guidelines to support Members in the establishment of Equine Disease-Free Zones (EDFZ). This is a risk-based approach which Members can implement when planning an international horse sport competition. By establishing an EDFZ, disease-risks in the zone can be mitigated in advance, and horses may safely enter and exit the zone keeping their health status intact. This lowers the burden of international horse travel for both customs officials and the veterinarian workforce. 

The PPP has furthermore addressed the temporary movement of horses at the regional level. A series of joint WOAH-IHSC meetings were held from 2017-2019, involving stakeholders such as veterinary authorities, custom authorities, representatives of the veterinary private sector, and the horse industry. These experts were able to discuss roadblocks to competition horse entry and exit at the border, and create action plans to overcome challenges specific to their regions and national contexts. These activities have led the update of additional standards, including CEM and Equine piroplasmosis. 

However, the benefits of this PPP did not stop there. These workshops also served to build networks across private and public functions at the regional level, leading to further collaborations to help solve the future regional challenges. In 2020, an outbreak of African horse sickness (AHS) was reported for the first time in the South-East Asia, including in Thailand who notified the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). Responding quickly, WOAH and IHSC provided targeted support by developing dedicated communication materials and producing a series of webinars. Together the PPP built and strengthened the capacity of veterinarians and local horse industry trying to control and eradicate the disease. Furthermore, during the outbreak WOAH and IHSC worked together to enhance the region’s laboratory capabilities by promoting and funding proficiency tests, which ensured that different laboratories were performing to standard and that the personnel and equipment could properly process and analyse disease samples. Since the outbreak, and due in part to the successful collaboration between the horse industry, the public veterinary health sector, and Thailand, they have recovered their AHS free official status since March 2022. 

Public-private partnership between WOAH and IHSC has been rich with positive outcomes for all parties, with positive cascading impacts for veterinary authorities, Members and the private equine sector at national level. When different sectors join forces with the common goal of improving animal health globally, the results are indisputable. WOAH relies on these partnerships, knowing that our activities cannot operate and evolve without the continuous exchange of information and resources. Using science, WOAH and its partners were able to update international standards, to ensure the safe and healthy travel of competition horses, and ensure that border controls are improved, efficient and able to apply science-based approaches. This model gives hope for future partnerships, allowing WOAH to strengthen ties with the private sector stakeholders on other pertinent animal health and welfare challenges. Because animal health should not be only a concern for only one sector. Only together can we ensure a healthier future for all.   

Veterinary vaccines, when used in conjunction with other health measures, have proven to be powerful tools in the prevention, control, and even the elimination of animal diseases. PPR and dog-mediated rabies have been the focus of vaccination efforts worldwide.  While most affected countries implement official vaccination to control these diseases, challenges such as improper use and poor quality of vaccines remain. The Global Animal Health Situation Report presented at WOAH’s 90th General Session describes the current situation and provides an analysis of these trends, based on the reporting of official vaccination by Members. 

Implementing PPR vaccination in remote pastoral areas

PPR is a viral livestock disease that can decimate entire herds of sheep and goats. Today, it still threatens 80% of the world’s sheep and goat population. As a result, it puts at risk the livelihoods and food security of some 300 million rural families worldwide who rely on small ruminant production. Eradicating PPR through vaccination and other appropriate measures, would not only ensure animal health and welfare, but would also improve the living conditions farmers, many of whom are women.  

From 2005 to 2022, an annual average of 70% of Members affected by PPR reported official vaccination against the disease. During the period 2005 – 2022, a stable trend was observed with a peak in 2015 (82% of affected Members).  

Through the PRAPS project (Sahel Regional Project Supporting Pastoralism), six countries of the Sahel region, including Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal, have been involved in an ambitious initiative to control PPR in the region. Notable achievements in PPR vaccination have been observed. Between 2016 and 2022, a staggering 188 million doses of PPR vaccine were distributed to the PRAPS countries and in 2022 alone, 32.2 million doses were delivered. The use of WOAH’s PPR vaccine bank has been instrumental to support the supply of large quantities of quality vaccines.  

While significant progress has been made in PPR vaccination in the Sahel region, a number of challenges remain. Identifying small ruminants, ensuring the effectiveness of vaccinations, maintaining vaccine quality control, and addressing human resources constraints, including training and staffing shortages, pose significant hurdles to fully controlling the spread of PPR and achieving long-term control goals in the Sahel region. Lessons learnt are taken into account in the next phases of the project. 

By addressing these challenges head-on, we can strive towards the global eradication of PPR, ensuring the protection of small ruminant populations, the livelihoods of farmers and the future of pastoralism. 

Tackling rabies at the animal source

Besides livestock diseases, zoonoses are also on the radar for vaccination campaigns. Rabies, a deadly disease with a fatality rate of nearly 100% in both humans and animals, continues to pose a global threat, claiming the lives of approximately 59,000 people each year. Because dogs are the primary carriers of this devastating zoonotic disease, effective control and elimination of rabies requires tackling its root cause in animals. Dog-mediated rabies has therefore been a major focus of vaccination campaigns. From 2005 to 2022, an average of 78% of WOAH Members affected by rabies reported official vaccination of dogs against rabies. However, there has been a gradual decline in the percentage of countries implementing rabies control measures, dropping from 85% to 62% during the period.  

Veterinary vaccines_rabies and ppr.

To support the goal of zero human deaths from dog-mediated rabies and to keep track of the use of veterinary vaccines, the United Against Rabies Forum, hosted by WOAH on the behalf of the Tripartite, has developed a comprehensive document titled ‘Minimal Data Elements’, which serves as a vital resource for monitoring progress towards the ambitious Zero by 30 Global Strategic Plan. This document notably offers essential data elements for countries to collect and diligently submit to the World Health Organization (WHO) and WOAH. By harmonising data practices, countries can effectively contribute to the global fight against rabies and track advancements in vaccination coverage. 

Boosting vaccination trends to better control animal diseases 

WOAH has developed global strategies that have encouraged countries to implement vaccination programmes against PPR and dog-mediated rabies. Through these initiatives and strategic partnerships, WOAH provides technical expertise and guidance to its Members on the implementation of effective vaccination strategies. By disseminating knowledge, facilitating information sharing, and supporting countries in accessing vaccines through initiatives such as vaccine banks, WOAH has significantly contributed to improving disease control efforts worldwide. The implementation of disease global strategies also fosters collaboration among countries, encouraging them to tackle animal diseases collectively and safeguard both animal and human health. 

It is imperative to take action together to prevent the spread of transboundary animal diseases and curb their effects on livelihoods and economies. Let’s work together to rid the world of dog-mediated rabies and PPR. 

Over 500 million birds have died from avian influenza since 2005. The deadly bird disease has devastating consequences on the health of domestic and wild birds, as well as on biodiversity and livelihoods. Lately, the global spread of avian influenza has raised growing preoccupation with an unprecedented number of outbreaks reaching new geographical regions, unusual die-offs in wild birds, as well as an increasing number of cases in mammals. Despite countries’ efforts to implement surveillance as well as strict prevention and control measures—such as movement control, enhanced biosecurity, and stamping-out—avian influenza continues to spark concern among the international community.  

Towards a paradigm shift in current avian influenza prevention and control measures? 

The extent and severity of the situation requires the assessment of existing strategies to contain the disease and raises multiple questions. What are the gaps in current disease control strategies? How can they be better tailored to different contexts and settings? Do we need to rethink about the way we rear some poultry species? How can we ensure an early detection of outbreaks? Which complementary control options would be needed at country and regional level? Would the wider use of vaccination in birds be a sustainable solution? How can poultry and poultry products trade take place safely in the presence of vaccination? How to best optimise resources allocation? 

To address the strategic questions and challenges that impede countries to progress towards the global control of the disease, WOAH will hold its first ever Animal Health Forum dedicated to discuss the topic on 22-23 May, in the framework of the 90th General Session. The Forum will introduce the Technical Item as a common thread and will provide one-of-a-kind chance to take stock of past and current strategies and explore other risk management options, more adapted to the current evolving situation. It will also be a unique opportunity to agree on suitable, science-based alternatives for disease surveillance and control, that can reduce the impact of the disease. 

New concerns arise as the disease evolves 

These past years, an unprecedented and broader range of virus strains has emerged, leading to further evolution of the viruses and thus creating an epidemiologically challenging landscape. Historically, the most severe form of the disease in poultry, high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI), used to mostly spread from farm to farm, while its low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) used to mainly circulate among wild birds, often remaining asymptomatic in these bird populations. Nowadays, we observe a persistent threat of HPAI encroaching into wild birds, which can carry the disease viruses over long distances and across country borders. Avian influenza has therefore spread rapidly to new regions, in particular in Central and South America where the disease had not been detected for 20 years. In this region, 10 countries reported the disease to WOAH. Whereas, at global level, 74 countries and territories have notified avian influenza outbreaks since October 2021; this wide geographical spread has no previous historical context. 

Beyond the increased number of cases identified in poultry and wild birds in recent years, avian influenza is now being reported in wild and captive mammals. Recent cases in otters, foxes and mink have sparked animal and public health concerns pertaining to the risk of viruses becoming more adapted to mammals and what this means to humans.  

Sporadic, but severe human cases have also occurred. Although transmission from birds to humans is rare and results from repeated exposure to infected birds, the risk of a pandemic remains.  

Building an effective common response  

Avian influenza is a serious threat to global health, livelihoods, food security, and biodiversity. While there have been significant efforts to prevent and control its spread, there is still much work to be done. The change of epidemiology of the disease these past two years has undermined the use of stamping-out as a main control measure. As we are looking for more sustainable production practices, we must explore collectively alternative methods of disease control, to prevent and mitigate the disease, and consequently, avoid destroying so many animals when food security is becoming a critical issue for many.  

These strategic challenges will be extensively discussed during the upcoming Animal Health Forum on avian influenza. In particular, the topics of surveillance, disease control strategies, ways to ensure safe and fair international trade of poultry and poultry products and regional and global coordination will be debated.  

These important discussions will result in the development of international recommendations and will provide a solid basis for the rehaul of the WOAH/FAO global strategy on high pathogenicity avian influenza developed under the umbrella of the GF-TADs.

We need to ensure that countries can respond to this major health threat under a common framework and that their governments are ready to mobilise sufficient resources to tackle avian influenza. Taking appropriate action will be critical to ensure, a safer, healthier future for everyone. 

To follow the discussions, connect to our Animal Health forum: 

Monday 22 May 

  • 9:00 a.m. – Session 1 – Avian influenza intelligence: Surveillance and monitoring for early detection and prevention
  • 2:30 p.m. – Session 2 – Response: Disease control strategies for early response and business continuity. The role of vaccination
  • 3:30 p.m. – Session 3 – Resilience: International standards to facilitate safe international trade

Tuesday 23 May 

  • 9:00 a.m. – Session 4 – Global coordinated strategy for the progressive control of avian influenza