Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral animal disease whose impacts have long been studied by researchers across disciplines. By sending shockwaves across food systems and economies, the disease has established itself as one of the most feared livestock diseases worldwide, especially in trade-oriented countries. Its renewed presence in the EU has stirred concerns among stakeholders whose countries have remained disease-free for decades. 

Trade, food security and economy under threat 

FMD is feared worldwide for its devastating impact on trade, food security and the economy. With clinical signs varying with the strain of virus, age and breed of animal, the disease typically causes painful blisters which translate into severe production losses. This means that, far from being only a veterinarian crisis, FMD has profound, far-reaching consequences. By reducing milk and meat production, the disease poses indeed a unique threat to the farming sector, exacerbating poverty and worsening food insecurity in affected communities. 

When FMD broke out in the early 2000s in the UK, the event resulted in over 6 million animals (pigs, sheep and cattle) being culled and a public expenditure of £3 billion. Figures like these are a clear indication of the disease’s potential to cause society-wide disruption – shuttering borders, halting movement and putting the economy under strain. 

The recent FMD outbreaks in Hungary and Slovakia – a total of eleven – have also prompted swift responses from border inspection authorities. In April,  several countries announced a temporary ban restricting the use and transport of dairy and meat products from the EU, citing concerns that cross-border travel could facilitate transmission through contaminated food, transport vehicles and packaging. 

Testing the EU’s resilience 

FMD is commonly reported in parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, but has been eliminated from most high-income countries. The EU had been free of FMD since 2011, when the last outbreak occurred in Bulgaria.

However, 2025 started on a challenging note for Europe. After decades without cases, Germany reported an outbreak in a buffalo farm in January 2025. The outbreak was successfully contained, and the country was quick to regain WOAH’s status “free of FMD without vaccination” on 14 April 2025.

Meanwhile in Hungary, the first case in over half a century was reported on a cattle farm near the border with Austria and Slovakia, in an area with moderate cattle density. “We were shocked when we realised what was going on”, says Dr Bognár Lajos Levente, WOAH’s Delegate of Hungary. “It was such a surprise for us to see the disease reaching the EU. I don’t think any country is really prepared for this kind of outbreak, especially considering that the region has long been free from the disease”.

Three outbreaks were soon after reported in adjacent Slovakia, where a state of emergency was declared and border restrictions were imposed. Dr Martin Chudy, WOAH’s Delegate of Slovakia, recalls the night when the first signs of the disease were detected, with two cows showing suspiciously high temperature. “When it comes to responding to an outbreak, you always need to be one step ahead of the virus,” he says, also adding that the complexity of FMD makes this approach even more urgent. 

No new outbreaks have been reported in Hungary and Slovakia since 17 April. The latest data submitted by national Veterinary Authorities can be found at World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) portal managed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 

Responding to the resurgence 

As with other diseases, surveillance, data collection and timely reporting are key to containing and preventing the spread. FMD presents a unique challenge because it is extremely infectious: once the infection takes hold in a population, it becomes exponentially more difficult to contain, making rapid response measures especially critical. It also affects recreational activities at risk such as visiting zoological parks or hunting. 

When it occurs, FMD often necessitates mass culling of affected animals and implementation of stringent biosecurity measures to contain it. Biosecurity measures against FMD spread include cleaning and disinfection of affected premises (after depopulation), movement restrictions of animal, people, vehicles and farm equipment, and intensive surveillance in buffer zones around the outbreaks – all of which were implemented in Hungary and Slovakia since the onset of the outbreak. Emergency vaccination can also be used in some circumstances. However, countries may be reluctant because of concerns about the impact of FMD vaccination on regaining disease freedom and on international trade. 

The use of Incident Management System approaches has allowed agility and effectiveness in the EU-wide response to the disease. WOAH recently developed its own IMS, thanks to the generous support of Global Affairs Canada’s Weapons Threat Reduction Program in support of the objectives of the G7-led Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction (GP). The IMS was activated for the first time to support WOAH’s response to the emergency facing the three EU countries, and with potential implications beyond.

The IMS offered a powerful platform for continuous risk assessment, supporting the sharing of experiences among countries and partner organisations, as well as the sharing of information with the public. We were on alert to escalate the response if the situation deteriorated, and Veterinary Services would have required support to be coordinated within international emergency preparedness frameworks.

Alexandre Fediaevsky, Preparedness and Resilience Department at WOAH.

“Among the benefits of activating an IMS were faster decision processes as well as increased internal, external coordination capacity and information sharing.”, adds Alexandre Fediaevsky.

Fighting misinformation during emergencies

The COVID-19 pandemic offers a unique example of how information systems can be heavily strained at times of uncertainty. While on a much smaller scale, the recent FMD outbreaks in the EU have brought back to the fore the danger that misinformation can pose in society, influencing public perceptions and amplifying fears. 

Misleading media reports and headlines during the outbreaks contributed to public concern over human infection despite scientific consensus that FMD poses minimal risk to people. This also happened in countries not directly affected by the disease where precautionary measures were taken. According to The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), some media inaccurately reported that it took six or seven days for controls on commercial imports to take effect and allowed disease to enter the country.  

In addition to this, there has been no shortage of speculation around the very origins of the outbreak. Despite WOAH stating that there’s no evidence suggesting that the recent FMD outbreaks may have been deliberate, some unverified claims have raised alarm over this possibility, fuelling fears of deliberate introduction. Soon after news started circulating, virologist Jiří Černý from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague publicly warned against jumping to conclusions. Meanwhile, some media outlets reacted to the news debunking untruthful narratives and providing context to the events.  

A recent World Economic Forum report has highlighted that mis- and disinformation are perceived as the greatest short-term risks facing the world, underscoring the urgency of addressing the issue. The effort needed to keep on top of mis- and disinformation also draw resources away from the actual response. To help Veterinary Services, Aquatic Animal Health Services and Law Enforcement navigate the shifting information landscape, WOAH has developed a set of guidelines on the topic in partnership with the International Criminal Police Organisation (INTERPOL), with the support of Global Affairs Canada’s Weapons Threat Reduction Program. The Countering disinformation and misinformation in animal health emergencies guidelines introduce some key strategies to manage disinformation and misinformation.  

Armed with renewed interest and deeper understanding of the issue, WOAH hopes that these guidelines will help online audiences mitigate the risk of fragmentation, ensuring that the disease monitoring and control remain timely and effective. “The elimination of a disease does not mean that it will never be back,” says WOAH’s Director General Emmanuelle Soubeyran. “This is why it’s crucial that we do everything possible to ensure the countries worldwide have at their disposal the necessary tools – from incident management systems to early detection and control measures – to address the unpredictable emergence of both old and new threats.”

^{Disclaimer 
Deliberate introduction of animal pathogens is a real risk, but in this case, there was no concrete evidence to support this hypothesis. In fact, WOAH has a programme on biological threat reduction which aims to mitigate the risk of deliberate or accidental release of animal pathogens. This includes providing support to Members on investigating suspicious events and countering misinformation.  WOAH is not aware of any evidence that the FMD event was caused by a deliberate introduction, nor that the virus is of non-natural origin. Epidemiological investigations are still ongoing on the transmission pattern. All plausible hypotheses to determine the origin of the outbreaks are being considered and assessed, building on the available data and evolving evidence.} 

Since 1998, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has mandated the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) to officially recognise animal disease-free countries and zones. This recognition is not only significant for international trade and national livestock economies, but it acknowledges the efforts of WOAH Members in controlling animal diseases.  

Originally an honour that only recognised foot and mouth disease (FMD) free status of Members, WOAH’s official disease-free status recognition has grown to include, African horse sickness (AHS), classical swine fever (CSF), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). WOAH recognition also includes endorsements of official programmes to manage CBPP, FMD, PPR and dog-mediated rabies. Members can apply for the official recognition of animal health status on a voluntary basis.  

Each year during its General Session, WOAH celebrates the Members that achieve disease-free status or have had their control programmes endorsed. Achieving a disease-free status can play an important role in facilitating both international and regional trade of animals and animal products. And having a disease control programme officially recognised by WOAH can help Veterinary Services secure resources from their governments to facilitate the rollout of these plans.  

This year at WOAH’s 92^nd General Session, several Members were added to the list of Members recognised for their animal health status in the entire territory or specific zones:  

• New FMD-free zones with vaccination were recognised in Argentina, the Republic of Korea and Russia  

• New zones were declared free of FMD without vaccination in Bolivia and Brazil 

• Chinese Taipei was declared free of CSF 

• Mongolia’s FMD control programme was endorsed 

• Saudi Arabia was declared free of AHS 

• Tanzania’s dog-mediated rabies control programmed was endorsed 

• Two zones in the United Kingdom were declared as having negligible BSE risk 

Recent milestones in the global fight against FMD highlight significant achievements in disease control and coordination efforts across diverse regions. Notably, the entire territories of Bolivia and Brazil have been declared free of FMD without the use of vaccination—a great feat considering the coordination necessary at local and regional levels in both countries. After withdrawal of the WOAH endorsement of Mongolia’s control programme in the past, the country has successfully managed to revise its FMD-control programme for its endorsement by WOAH. 

Bolivia’s commitment to zoning 

Boliva has adopted a progressive FMD control scheme diligently since 2010, which involves zoning and gradually obtaining an FMD-free status for each zone. “Great care was taken in defining the zones, to avoid possible conflicts in internal livestock trade,” writes Dr. Hernán Oliver Daza, WOAH Delegate and Chief Veterinary Officer for Bolivia, “This, along with respecting the progress of each stage of the progressive pathway, allowed for the initial recognition of FMD-free zones with vaccination and, in the last five years, achieving a status without vaccination at the national level.” 

Dedication to public-private partnerships has resulted in the country’s FMD-free where vaccination is not practised status; while on the other hand the use of the PVS tool in strategic planning to strengthen veterinary services in Bolivia has been and continues to be key. “We are fully aware that the change in status means maintaining many of the activities that are already in place under the current status,” explains Dr. Daza, “So, maintaining and strengthening these actions represent a national commitment in compliance with the WOAH standards, as well as the Hemispheric Foot-and-Mouth Disease Eradication Plan (PHEFA) and the cooperation of the PANAFTOSA – a WOAH Collaborating Centre in the region.”  

Cooperation across Brazil 

“The FMD-free status is extremely significant for Brazil because it represents the culmination of efforts we’ve been working toward for decades,” says Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Mota, WOAH Delegate and Director of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of Brazil. Becoming FMD-free has been a long and challenging process for Brazil given the country’s size and enormous number of livestock, which includes over 234 million head of cattle. The country, split into 27 states, mobilised its national, state and municipal level veterinary system to ensure that veterinarians could be present in over 85% of Brazil’s municipalities, including remote areas.  

This FMD-free status is a huge milestone for Brazil. Livestock in South America is a critical part of the economy, and it’s not only important within the region but also for contributing to global food security. Brazil is one of the largest producers and exporters of beef, and this status ensures that we continue to contribute to feeding people worldwide.

Dr. Marcelo de Andrade Mota, WOAH Delegate and Director of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of Brazil.

Mongolia strengthens FMD surveillance 

“The withdrawal of WOAH’s endorsement of Mongolia’s FMD control programme had several significant impacts,” writes Dr. Ayushjav Narantuya, WOAH Delegate and Mongolia’s Chief Veterinary Officer, “And its re-endorsement brings both immediate and long-term benefits across several areas.” These areas include enhanced trade opportunities through improved market access and stronger export competitiveness, economic gains in the livestock sector and increased international support and collaboration.  

To achieve this milestone, Mongolia worked to strengthen both its passive and active FMD surveillance activities, particularly in high-risk areas along the country’s borders and invested heavily in veterinary and inspector training with the assistance of Mongolia’s General Agency for Veterinary Services (GAVS). Through the process, the country recognised the importance of engaging its citizens. “Local ownership matters,” adds Dr Narantuya, “community involvement and trust-building are key to effective disease control.” 

WOAH recognition of animal health status strengthens local economies, promotes safe trade and represent progress in the global fight against livestock diseases. In addition, it can boost animal health across regions, protecting human health and livelihoods. Because animal health is our health. It’s everyone’s health.  

During WOAH’s 92nd General Session, a new certificate was issued to award Members that have undertaken significant efforts to sequester and destroy Rinderpest materials held in their facilities.

The awarded Members are France, for the complete destruction of all rinderpest materials except for vaccines for international preparedness, and India, for having been designated as a Rinderpest Holding Facility (RHF) and embarking on the pathway towards inventory reduction as part of its new mandate. The event marks the first time that WOAH Members receive such a recognition and a milestone for the organisation in its long-term efforts to maintain the world free from the eradicated disease – ultimately ensuring everyone’s health. 

Rinderpest is remembered as one of the most devastating cattle diseases ever recorded in history. Also known as cattle plague, the disease has its most profound effects on livestock-dependent communities, causing widespread starvation and shaking the agricultural sector to the core. The eradication of rinderpest was declared in 2011, making it the second viral disease to be eradicated after smallpox in the 1980s. In economic terms, the global benefits of the hard-won freedom from the disease are believed to have amounted to billions of dollars.  

Despite its successful eradication in the field, rinderpest virus has not been entirely eliminated from laboratories, with twelve institutions across the world still holding samples. The presence of the virus poses a risk for the accidental re-introduction of the disease and – although to a lesser extent – the deliberate release by the hands of malicious actors. Members of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) agreed to store the virus only in highly secure Rinderpest Holding Facilities (RHFs) that have been inspected and approved jointly by the two organisations, which make up eight out of the twelve laboratories. 

Today, the best way to prevent rinderpest from reemerging is to ensure that rinderpest virus containing material is destroyed. However, some scientists have raised concerns over the irreversible loss of virological and genetic data as well as intellectual property that comes with the virus destruction. This is why an initiative encouraging RHFs to perform genomic sequencing of rinderpest materials ahead of their destruction has been broadly uptaken. 

The implementation of the first “Sequence and destroy” project was led by scientists at The Pirbright Institute – one of the eight  Rinderpest Holding Facilities, with the aim to eliminate virus samples held in the Institute, as explained by Dr Carrie Batten, Head of the Non-Vesicular Reference Laboratory at Pirbright. 

The Sequence and destroy project has three specific outputs: 

1. Genetic data pertaining to historical rinderpest isolates;  
2. Establishment of a permanent archive of genetic, epidemiological and pathological data;
3. Destruction of rinderpest virus. 

There are multiple benefits to establishing a permanent archive of genetic data. Should live virus ever be needed again, advances in synthetic biology have made it possible to reconstitute the virus with relative ease, based on the sequence data, to support research on viral evolution and to inform control of other animal and human diseases caused by similar viruses, including peste des petits ruminants virus (PPR). This means that, if there was ever a re-occurrence of rinderpest, having genetic information readily available in public databases would help investigate it and track the source of the virus. 

“We still have a lot to understand about rinderpest, as the eradication campaigns may have had impacts on the evolution of the [rinderpest] virus itself and other closely related pathogens such as Peste des Petits Ruminants virus”, explains Dr Arnaud Bataille from the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD).  With France being awarded the certificate at this year’s General Session, CIRAD has proved worthy of the trust of the international community to safely maintain and destroy rinderpest virus.

This is a historical achievement. The latest developments with the ‘Sequence & destroy’ project teach us that it is essential to retain knowledge of the disease, which may prove vital for understanding the diseases of tomorrow.

Marie-Christine Le Gal, WOAH’s Delegate of France.

Overall, the rinderpest success story – from its groundbreaking eradication to the most recent post-eradication efforts and the sequencing of the world’s last virus stocks before their removal – is a source of inspiration for the global health community. “Rinderpest offers a powerful example of strong unity and shared sense of purpose within a profession,” concludes Dr Le Gal. “This unity has allowed the entire sector to be organised, act responsibly and make practical progress. It’s a model we should remember and learn from as our field faces new, unpredictable challenges.”  

Looking forward, WOAH supports its Network of Rinderpest Holding Facilities in following CIRAD’s example by destroying their holdings of rinderpest materials, except for vaccines for international preparedness. WOAH Members who continue to keep rinderpest materials outside of designated Rinderpest Holding Facilities are encouraged to either destroy them or to submit an application to be considered as a candidate Rinderpest Holding Facility.

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most devastating diseases for domestic pigs and wild boars worldwide. The highly contagious, haemorrhagic disease can have a mortality rate as high as 100%, making its spread a concern for animal health, local economies, farmers livelihoods, and biodiversity.  

Since January 2022, at least 12 countries have reported a first occurrence of ASF and at least 11 countries have reported its spread to previously unaffected zones. Between January 2022 and 28 February 2025, ASF led to over 2 million animal losses worldwide, with Asia and Europe being most affected. Losses of this scale can be devastating. Pigs, often raised on family-run pig farms, are the primary source of household income in many countries. More than that, ASF, if uncontrolled, could throw food security into jeopardy as pork meat accounts for 31% of the global protein intake.

Though affected countries have and continue to implement measures to halt the spread of the disease, controlling ASF has been historically difficult due to a lack of vaccines or effective treatment. In recent years, however, the research community has made large strides in producing ASF vaccines — some of which have received approval for field use in a small number of countries.

A new vaccine standard  

The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) encourages innovation in vaccine development; however, it remains imperative that the vaccines used in the field are of high-quality and have been proven safe and effective. Using poor quality or non-compliant vaccines could threaten ASF control measures as they may not provide protection against the disease. In fact, ineffective vaccines could result in the spread of the disease or in vaccine viruses recombining with the circulating ASF virus, creating new strains that could potentially spread more easily and escape detection. 

This year, at WOAH’s 92nd General Session, an ASF vaccine standard was adopted to demonstrate our Members’ commitment to tackling the disease and to use safe, compliant vaccines. This standard aims to provide Members and manufacturers with minimum standards for safe and effective vaccines. It highlights the need for vaccines to be effective in reducing the severity of the disease, limiting transmission of the virus and providing immunity to the animal, therefore reducing production losses due to ASF. They must be proven safe before use, meaning they do not cause lasting or severe clinical signs, harm the environment or contain wild ASF viruses or other harmful agents. Finally, they must match the circulating ASF genotype in the region of vaccination to ensure effectiveness and limit the risk of two different strains combining to form a new, harder to manage strain.  

Multi-layered ASF control 

Vaccination is a powerful tool if vaccines are made in accordance with WOAH international standards. However, improvements in vaccine development and strengthened international standards for vaccine approval do not position vaccination on its own as a viable method for ASF control.

Successful disease management involves a combination of biosecurity practices, import measures and animal movement control to which vaccines are a complementary action. The decision to vaccinate against ASF should fall on the Veterinary Authority and take into account the local epidemiology of the disease and the financial and human resources available for vaccination operations and post-vaccination surveillance. 

With continued investment in research, ASF control is within reach. High quality, effective vaccines paired with existing disease control measures could substantially lower the negative impact of ASF on animal health and human livelihoods.  

Wildlife plays a unique role in the planet’s functioning and survival. From bees pollinating plants to predators keeping species populations in check and coral reefs locking carbon away, wildlife has been a life-sustaining ally to our Earth for generations, creating balanced ecosystems like no other. 

WOAH recognises that the health of humans, animals – both wild and domestic – and ecosystems are inherently interdependent. To protect one, we need to protect all.  The current hazard landscape, however, is complex and ever evolving, with illegal wildlife trade among the most worrying existential threats. 

Against this backdrop, WOAH welcomes a new opportunity to reverberate its mission by offering Secretariat for the International Alliance against Health Risks in Wildlife Trade. 

Addressing overlooked diseases drivers in wildlife trade 

However, this is far from the only risk drawing global concern. The threat of zoonotic spillover from wildlife remains dangerously overlooked. Wild mammals and birds alone are believed to harbour hundreds of thousands of as-yet-unknown viruses – many of which could potentially jump to humans.  

Human-caused factors such as climate change, deforestation and wildlife trade play a significant role in driving the emergence of new diseases. Whether legal or illegal, wildlife trade can pose unique threats to species conservation – from domestic and wild animal health and welfare to ecosystems’ equilibriums and human health – at local and global scales. Indeed, in today’s complex societies, the risk of pathogen spillover, disease emergence and global spread are amplified by increased interaction between humans, wildlife and domestic animals. Legal and illegal wildlife trade represents one form of interaction. 

Yet, the knowledge gaps on socio-cultural aspects of human-wildlife interaction as well as on pathogen spillover processes also mean that there is still significant potential to mitigate the risk of future spillovers. And this is exactly where the International Alliance against Health Risks in Wildlife Trade steps in. Taking a One Health approach, the Alliance forms a dynamic, interdisciplinary and inclusive multi-stakeholder platform that brings together various disciplines across the One Health spectrum to seek solutions to complex and pressing issues related to health risks in the trade of wild animal species.  

Today, the Alliance counts on a network of more than 180 member organisations and 500 individuals. Drawing on diverse backgrounds, scientific expertise and local perspectives, the Alliance translates the commitment, knowledge and political will of its members into real-world impact by providing evidence-based consultation and guidance to government authorities, supporting and evaluating interventions on the ground and encouraging collaboration across disciplines, organisations and individuals on health risks in wildlife trade related matters.  

The work of the Alliance focuses on two main areas. On the one hand, it is committed to substantially reducing the risks of zoonotic spillover. It does so by advancing responses – including behavioural changes – to human and animal health risks caused by direct and indirect contact with wildlife occurring along wildlife trade supply chains. On the other hand, it works on enhancing in-country and global awareness, knowledge and policies, with the goal of bridging the gap between science and implementation on wildlife trade. The several projects implemented by International Alliance member organisations, both funded by the Alliance and run independently, focus on a variety of topics – from the monitoring of the wildlife e-commerce landscape to assess global trends to the analysis of global health risks associated with wildlife products hunted and traded as “Bushmeat” in Nigeria. 

During its chairmanship of the Alliance, GIZ consistently shared knowledge and raised awareness on health risks in wildlife trade in the context of One Health relying on interprofessional and multidisciplinary teams in a truly collegial and collaborative spirit. Thanks to its active and diverse membership, the Alliance was able to provide a platform for its members to exchange ideas and learn, while also helping governments implement policies to reduce health risks from wildlife trade. 

Collective action for a shared future 

Recognising their close links and interdependence, WOAH envisions a world where people, animals and their surrounding ecosystems coexist in a healthy manner and engage in mutually beneficial interactions. Safeguarding nature as a whole benefits species and their habitats, but it also lays the foundation for a more sustainable planet. 

As an inter-governmental organisation, WOAH strongly believes that better animal, environmental and human health includes addressing the health risks associated with wildlife trade. It is in this vein that a recently published set of guidelines has shed a clarifying light on the hazard landscape and defined the needed steps in risk assessment, suggesting ways to minimise disease risk in wildlife trade. WOAH was also represented on the steering committee of the Alliance and an active Member of the network, contributing to two working groups.  

The organisation is adamant that this new role as the Secretariat of the Alliance will allow for deeper connections between Veterinary Services – who are traditionally responsible for animal health – and the diverse pool of experts the Alliance is built upon.

This newly started chapter in our wildlife journey marks a milestone for WOAH and is something we take immense pride in. We live in a delicate ecosystem, whose functionality also relies on our action. These past years, WOAH has launched a Wildlife Health Framework, which reaffirms the responsibilities of Veterinary Services and provides them with tools and skills needed to fully address wildlife health issues and include wildlife health to routine activities.

Dr Emmanuelle Soubeyran, Director General, WOAH

“WOAH becoming the next host of the Secretariat highlights a strong overlap with the objectives of the Alliance and offers a unique opportunity to synergise efforts. This integration is key to building a more cohesive, effective system for safeguarding health across human, animal, and environment interfaces”, she adds.

The handover process of the Alliance began in January this year, with GIZ gradually transferring responsibilities to WOAH until 2026. This means that WOAH will take on a Secretariat role, while the governance of the Alliance will keep its member-driven, incubator and knowledge hub nature, with the opportunity to nurture a shared vision while also bringing new ideas to the table. Following in the steps of its predecessor GIZ, the organisation sees this opportunity as a powerful force in One Health, with the ultimate goal of improving health for all.  

“We are very proud and excited about this new chapter in WOAH’s wildlife journey”, concludes Dr Soubeyran. “With its expertise on the wide spectrum of animal health, I am confident that the organisation will contribute to making Alliance Members’ outputs and results visible, meaningful and enduring, to help face the unforeseeable, shifting challenges of tomorrow.” 

Animal health and welfare standards help countries prevent and control the spread of diseases, while supporting safe animal movement and international trade. Setting these standards is a core activity of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), which relies on scientific evidence and the latest data to build consensus among its Members on effective measures to manage and combat a wide range of diseases. 

Botswana offers a compelling example of the positive impact that standards can have on both animal health and human activities, as identified in the second round of the data analysis exercise for the upcoming Second Observatory Monitoring Report. From there, it is possible to identify Botswana as a successful country in implementing standards related to movement control, border precautions, zoning, and official disease status recognition. 

Movement control and border precaution successes

The cross-analysis of data performed by the Observatory revealed Botswana as a notable example. By analysing information on movement control within territories and border precautions, Botswana was identified as one of the countries that efficiently implemented both measures in response to a disease outbreak reported through the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). Over the same period, it also received a positive assessment from the Performance of Veterinary Services Information System (PVSIS). These two WOAH initiatives provide complementary insights: WAHIS tracks animal disease outbreaks and control measures taken by the Members, while PVSIS evaluates the capacity of national veterinary services. Their combined analysis in the second edition of the Observatory Monitoring Report deepens our understanding of the impact of movement control and border precautions in managing animal health risks. 

Read the full factsheet on movement control inside countries/territories and precautions at borders  

Botswana is represented by one of the orange dots in the chart above – a sub-group within the larger grey category. This indicates that Botswana’s Veterinary Services demonstrated, through an independent evaluation, their capacity to implement movement control measures by establishing a system for animal identification, traceability, and movement control targeting specific animal sub-populations in accordance with WOAH standards. Regarding border precautions, the evaluators found that Botswana was able to apply quarantine and border security procedures at all official entry points. However, these procedures do not yet systematically address illegal activities related to the import of animals, animal products, and veterinary products.

Official disease-free status recognition 

The implementation of these relevant standards has been key to achieving and maintaining official disease-free status. Today, Botswana is officially recognised by WOAH as free from contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and peste des petits ruminants (PPR) across the entire country, and from foot and mouth disease (FMD) in specific zones. It is one of the few countries in Africa to hold WOAH-recognised disease-free status, an achievement that can have a significant impact on a country’s economy. 

“Our mandate is to contribute to the development of our nation’s economy through agriculture,” said Kefentse Motshegwa, Director of Botswana’s Veterinary Services and WOAH Delegate. “Thanks to the disease-free status, our producers can access premium markets such as Europe, where they can sell their products at better prices.”

Currently, Botswana exports beef, but now that we have a reliable disease control infrastructure in place, backed by strong policies and political will, we have the potential to increase production and expand into other commodities, such as lamb and goat meat, and even live animals. This disease-free status is a powerful tool to uplift communities and help people earn a living from their enterprises.

Kefentse Motshegwa, Director of Botswana’s Veterinary Services and WOAH Delegate.

Read the full factsheet on self-declarations and official status.

Transparency on performances of the veterinary services 

Botswana has also opted for transparency on its animal health services through its decision to make the reports from its Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) Evaluations public on the PVSIS portal. While countries are free to choose whether or not to disclose the results of these assessments, WOAH encourages this practice, as it helps inform and strengthen international relationships in areas such as trade, investment, and development. 

“I believe that, as a nation, we are very transparent,” Kefentse Motshegwa said. “And this can be beneficial in many ways. By openly sharing the weaknesses and risks we face, we can actually build trust with our neighbouring countries and trade partners. We have seen that by communicating our challenges honestly, we have improved our opportunities of receiving support. This transparency is valued by our own government, and it helps us to be clear with our development partners about our needs and the progress we are making.” 

Have you read?

The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)’s inaugural publication of the State of the World’s Animal Health, brings to the forefront the role of vaccination in safeguarding animal health. This emphasis on vaccination is mirrored in Bhutan’s ambitious initiative to control rabies. In 2021, following a royal decree, the country launched its most ambitious animal health initiative: the Nationwide Dog Population Management and Rabies Control Programme, aimed to achieve mass anti-rabies vaccination as well as 100% sterilisation of free-roaming dogs.

By October of 2023, the country – whose sizeable dog population is more than 100,000 – had successfully sterilised all free-roaming dogs and achieved 90% rabies dog-vaccination coverage across the population. Now, nearly rabies free, the nation is working hard to sustain its achievement, placing control in the hands of the local governments and looking beyond its own borders to achieve rabies-free status by 2030.

Rabies in Bhutan 

At the time of writing, rabies is not present across the entire country, which is divided into 20 districts known as dzongkhags, but primarily the southern and eastern regions due to their proximity to the national border. However, this hasn’t always been the case. “Although official records are limited, research has documented that in the 1970s and 1980s rabies was prevalent in many parts of the country,” shares Dr. Rinzin Pem, Bhutan’s Chief Veterinary Officer. “In the 1980s, control efforts focused on mass culling of dogs. However, this approach was strongly opposed by the public, reflecting Bhutan’s cultural and spiritual reverence for life and widespread disapproval of animal killing.” 

In fact, public opposition was a significant factor that led the country to find alternate solutions. “Bhutan is a small country with close-knit communities, so public sentiment had a strong influence,” continues Dr. Pem, “The realisation that vaccination was an evidence-based alternative to culling ultimately led to the shift in strategy.”  

Bhutan’s nationwide action 

In addition to the public’s existing trust in the country’s government run Veterinary Services, Bhutan’s early vaccination campaigns were supported by extensive awareness and advocacy programmes, particularly in schools across high-risk dzongkhags, which promoted dog population management and fostered broad public acceptance of vaccination efforts. Well established animal health services gave vaccination initiatives a substantial network to work with. These factors paired with rabies vaccines being distributed free-of-charge by government workers resulted in strong support from the public and ongoing annual vaccination programmes.  

Building on the back of these annual campaigns, in 2021 by royal decree Bhutan launched the Nationwide Dog Population Management and Rabies Control Progamme. The largest coordinated vaccination and sterilisation effort the nation has undertaken to date. This effort was a whole-of-nation approach in which Bhutan’s Veterinary Service secured financial resources, engaged communities, and worked with 12,000 volunteers – locally known as Desuups.  

“Prior to this,” Dr. Pem explains, “Our vaccination efforts were more ad hoc and dependent on available resources. We always aimed for 70% coverage, but funding constraints often limited our reach.” The nationwide campaign completely changed this, ensuring a more systematic and effective approach. “If you visit Bhutan now,” she reflects, “You’ll notice that all free-roaming dogs in the streets have notched ears. This means they are sterilised and vaccinated.”  

Looking ahead 

Now, the challenge lies in sustaining the success of the initiative. “To maintain what we’ve accomplished,” says Dr. Pem, “We’ve handed over responsibility to local governments, who are now tasked with maintaining 100% sterilisation of free-roaming dogs and ensuring at least 70% vaccination coverage against rabies.” Beyond this, the initiative aims to sustain 100% vaccination for pet dogs, especially in high-risk areas, and regulatory changes have been made to keep vaccine compliance high, including leash and microchip requirements for pets. These legal measures set the country up to achieve rabies-free status by 2030.  

Even with the overwhelming success of the programme, there remain challenges to overcome. One of which is the transborder nature of the disease. Being a landlocked country, Bhutan faces occasional outbreaks due to cross-border incursions. In an effort to mitigate this issue, the nation piloted a cross-border vaccination program in collaboration with neighbouring countries in 2024. “We continue to push for sustained collaboration, but implementation takes time,” Dr. Pem explains, while remaining hopeful, “As a global community, we need to shift our perspective. We can’t think solely in terms of national borders; diseases don’t. Stronger regional collaboration is the only way forward.” 

Over the last few decades, antimicrobials have been used in many non-essential ways, such as for promoting animal growth. Scientific evidence shows that irresponsible use drive to the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a major threat to the health of animals and humans alike, with significant economic consequences.

Measuring the quantity of antimicrobials administered to animals is key to understanding usage patterns and trends, ensuring compliance with international standards on responsible use, and eventually avoiding health issues, deaths, and economic losses. Recognising this need, WOAH has released its ninth Antimicrobial Agents Intended for Use in Animals Report (AMU Report). Analysing data covering 71% of animal biomass, the report reveals a 5% reduction between 2020 and 2022 – the year the most complete set of data was recorded.

Health experts and decision makers are well aware of the risks connected to AMR and much progress has been made to decrease their unnecessary use. In September 2024, Member States of the United Nations undersigned the Political Declaration of the High-level Meeting on Antimicrobial Resistance. As part of this official commitment, countries agreed to work towards reducing the global use of antimicrobials in animal health and agriculture. This involves investing in the prevention and control of infections, while also encouraging all countries to report, through existing global surveillance systems, high-quality surveillance data on antimicrobial resistance and use.

ANIMUSE, WOAH’s global database on antimicrobial use, was designed to collect and publicly share global and regional data on antimicrobial use provided by national animal health authorities. 

What the new AMU Report tells us 

The ninth AMU Report, whose findings are also featured in the inaugural State of the World’s Animal Health, represents a 6% increase of animal biomass compared to the previous edition – a notable expansion in coverage. The animal biomass is an internationally recognised indicator calculated to better analyse and interpret antimicrobial use trends.

Used as a denominator for the antimicrobial quantities reported by the different nations, it allowed WOAH to estimate that, between 2020 and 2022, the quantity of antimicrobials intended for use in animals decreased from 102 mg to 97 mg of antimicrobial agents per kg of animal biomass, corresponding to the 5% reduction already mentioned.

The report demonstrates the consistent participation of 157 countries in WOAH’s annual survey, 111 of which providing quantitative data on antimicrobial use. Thanks to this participation, this year’s AMU Report provides new interesting insights. For the first time it has been possible to elaborate a separate analysis of data from the Middle East; additionally, the report presents a comparison between terrestrial and aquatic food-producing animals. Coverage reached 47% of terrestrial animal biomass and 64% of aquatic, enhancing the granularity of the analysis and therefore the understanding of antimicrobial use globally.  

Trends of antimicrobial use 

Taking into consideration the data from 85 participants who consistently provided quantitative data for the period 2020 to 2022 – corresponding to 62% of the global animal biomass – the global 5% decrease in antimicrobial use is reflected in most of WOAH’s Regions. Africa, the Americas, Europe and Asia and the Pacific regions reported consistent reduction: -20%, -4%, -23% and –2% respectively, while the Middle East recorded a 43% increase. However, ANIMUSE experts noted that antimicrobial use in this region is the lowest among all, representing only 0.3% of the global biomass and 0.04% of the global quantities reported. 

Full compliance on responsible use is still to be achieved 

WOAH’s international standards, guidelines and recommendations do not recognise the use of antimicrobials for growth promotion purposes as responsible use and encourages countries to completely phase out this practice. Although the report shows that 71% of participants to the survey have stopped this method, 22% continue to do so. Among respondents using growth promoters in animals, 7% reported using at least one antimicrobial classified as highest priority critically important to human health, such as colistin, enrofloxacin and fosfomycin. 

The use of antimicrobials to boost animal productivity rather than treat, control or prevent infections is highly dangerous, as it can contribute to AMR. This occurs when microbes adapt and become resistant to treatment, making infections harder – or even impossible – to cure. As a result, when animals or humans genuinely need antimicrobials for infections, the treatment may no longer be effective due to this resistance. 

Action against antimicrobial resistance is needed now

In 2022, the year of the data presented in the report, antimicrobial resistance was directly responsible for 1.15 million human deaths. Projections show that without action, drug-resistant bacteria could cause 38.5 million deaths in human between 2025 and 2050, reaching a 60% higher annual toll than today, with the human health burden heaviest among the elderly and in low- and middle-income countries.  

For all these reasons, it is fundamental to act against antimicrobial resistance, starting now, by reducing the use of antimicrobials in animals, to guarantee improved welfare and health both to farmed animals and people. Coordinated and timely effort, developed with a One Health approach, is the only way to save lives and resources.  

There are many ways to avoid unnecessary antimicrobial use. Proper animal husbandry and biosecurity are essential and should never be replaced by antimicrobials. Farmers and policymakers should prioritise prevention, especially through investment in vaccination as it can help to prevent diseases and reduces the need for antimicrobial treatments. 

WOAH will remain at the forefront of the efforts to reduce AMR, working alongside its Members and advocating for well-resourced national surveillance systems. Collecting, sharing, and analysing data is essential to reducing antimicrobial use and making science-driven, evidence-based decisions for a healthier future. 

Have you read?

As high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) continues to affect wild and domestic birds and mammals, vaccination against the virus may become a necessary addition to existing biosecurity and control measures used to manage the disease. As part of the first inaugural State of the World’s Animal Health, published by the World Organisation of Animal Health (WOAH), The World Egg Organisation (WEO) shares its insights into how vaccination could protect laying-hens and safeguard egg production. 

An interview with Julian Madeley (Director General of the World Egg Organisation)

Given your experience, how have you seen the approach to HPAI management evolve over the years? 

Julian Madeley (J.M.) : For many years, WEO has been championing effective biosecurity as a very important tool in the control of avian influenza, and we will continue to do so. We have seen the adoption of high standard biosecurity practices on farm. 

We have seen that robust biosecurity protocols and controls can reduce the risk of disease. We have also seen egg farms with excellent biosecurity suffer from disease outbreaks. 

The rapidly changing nature of this virus means that existing prevention and control strategies are no longer enough. Now egg farmers need proper access to effective and practicable avian influenza vaccination programmes as an additional tool. 

What role do you see vaccination playing in the broader strategy for avian influenza control, alongside biosecurity measures? 

J.M. : As an additional tool and a complementary measure, to be used alongside biosecurity and control measures. 

As egg farmers we have two key roles, the first is to look after the health and welfare of our animals, and the second is to provide highly nutritious food for people. Vaccination helps us achieve both goals. It helps us continue to provide good health and welfare, and it helps us to continue to provide high quality nutrition. 

What are the biggest challenges or misconceptions surrounding the use of vaccination for HPAI? 

J.M. : A common misconception is that vaccination risks creating virus mutations, when in fact it decreases exposure of humans and contamination of the environment – not to mention the economic and animal welfare benefits. 

Key challenges to address include cost of surveillance, impact on other sectors of the poultry industry, and trade. 

How do you see international organisations like the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) shaping the future of vaccination policies for animal health?

What role should industry stakeholders, such as the WEO, play in supporting vaccination efforts? 

J.M. : A coordinated global approach to HPAI vaccination strategies is needed, supported by clear guidance on surveillance and appropriate steps to mitigate trade implications. 

Our role at WEO is to act as the bridge between WOAH and FAO and egg producers. The WEO will play an active role in supporting the implementation of WOAH and FAO’s strategy, by developing practical tools that can be used on farm, to encourage excellence in biosecurity and support egg farmers who do vaccinate, to do this in the most effective way possible. 

How can governments and private sector actors work together to ensure vaccines are widely accessible and effectively implemented? 

As more and more countries around the world start vaccinating their laying hens for avian influenza, we must establish global best practice guidelines. WEO has developed these farm-level guidelines and is happy to share our work, to ensure that this is complementary to the high-level strategies developed by WOAH & FAO. 

The first step in HPAI vaccination is defining a strategic goal and all the necessary means to achieve that goal based on available science. 

HPAI vaccination always necessitates very close collaboration between all stakeholders, particularly veterinary services, regulatory agency, pharmaceutical industry, veterinarians, and all of the poultry industry. 

It needs a clear definition of roles and responsibilities of each actor in the chain, from the pharmaceutical manufacturer to farmers and all actors in between. The vaccination plan must be transparent to all stakeholders, including retailers and consumers. 

Financial responsibilities for vaccines, vaccination and surveillance must be agreed upon prior to implementation.

Looking ahead, what do you think will be the most critical factors in achieving better global control of HPAI? 

J.M. : Tackling avian influenza requires a unified effort. 

The current scenario is that HPAI is endemic in wild birds and will remain so. Biosecurity alone has proven insufficient to protect egg production in the current context. Predictability of outbreaks is poor and dependent on wild birds’ behaviour – which changes with seasonal and climatic conditions. 

In such a context, better understanding of the epidemiology through basic research in order to improve biosecurity is critical. And a smart approach to vaccination in high-risk species and areas is an additional layer of protection which seems critical today.

About Julian Madeley

Julian Madeley is the Director General of the World Egg Organisation, where he leads the strategic development of the organisation and champions the global benefits of eggs for human health and nutrition. Passionate about advancing awareness of the egg’s role in improving lives worldwide, Julian brings extensive international experience to the position. 

Transparency, trust in the certification system, and epidemiological stability are essential for encouraging countries to recognise zones from a trade partner, according to a new study from the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). The Observatory, the transversal programme by WOAH that evaluates the global implementation of international animal health and welfare standards, has released the second part of its inaugural thematic study on zoning and compartmentalisation. Focusing specifically on zoning, this publication enriches the existing body of knowledge on the matter with new evidence and statistical insights. 

What is zoning?

Zoning is the practice that allows veterinary authorities to manage subpopulations of animals with a specific health status, keeping them separate from other animal groups within a country. This separation, primarily done on geographical basis, allows countries to prevent and control diseases while ensuring trade continuity for healthy animals and animal products. 

While WOAH offers guidance on zoning through its terrestrial and aquatic codes, the effective implementation of zoning standards remains challenging for many countries and territories. Consequently, the Observatory conducted its first-ever thematic study, titled Use, Challenges, and Impact of Zoning and Compartmentalisation. The first part, published in 2024, offered valuable insights on the level of use of zoning standards with a focus on avian influenza, African swine fever, and foot and mouth disease. 

Building on these findings, the second part of the study goes beyond Members’ perceptions by incorporating data from the same survey as well as from WOAH’s internal and external datasets. This analysis examines the statistical relationships between several factors and the acceptance of zones by trade partners, providing perspectives from both importers and exporters. 

Findings of the study 

The study identified 36 factors that influence the acceptance of zones by trading partners. In the first part of the study, WOAH Members – which could be both importers and exporters of animals or animal products – were asked to rank 16 factors based on their importance. In the second part, researchers assessed those factors as well as other relevant ones for statistical significance with zone acceptance. Beyond the list of factors, some trends emerge as particularly relevant.  

All summed up, transparency was recognised as the most important factor by both importers and exporters, closely followed by trust in the certification system of animals and animal products and the implementation of WOAH standards for zoning and compartmentalisation. The significance of these concepts – better described in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code developed by WOAH – was further validated through statistical analysis. For the purposes of the study, examples of transparency included countries and territories reporting animal events through the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), having an official disease status recognition by WOAH, self-declaring zone status on WOAH platforms, or being able to provide a recent report on the performance of Veterinary Services. 

Statistical evidence aside, two other factors stand out as particularly significant in the perceptions of importers and exporters. While exporters place greater emphasis than importers on the existence of bilateral procedures, both parties agree on the importance of a stable epidemiological situation for accepting zones implemented by trade counterparts. 

Developing international standards for animal health and welfare, based on the latest scientific information, is central to WOAH’s mandate. The thematic study developed by WOAH, along with others that will follow focusing on various topics related to these standards, will enhance their implementation by providing evidence and guidance to decision-makers and animal health professionals. 

Read the full study