At dawn, markets begin to stir. Trucks arrive from distant villages. Farmers guide sheep and goats through narrow streets. Buyers inspect animals, negotiate prices and prepare for the journey home. For many families, this moment represents hope: an animal sold can mean school fees paid, food on the table or money set aside for the next season. For those choosing a sheep or goat for a celebration, it is also a source of pride and recognition within the community. 

Around the world, an estimated 330 million people depend on small ruminants – sheep and goats – for their livelihoods and food security. These animals are central to family farming systems, particularly in marginalised communities. They provide meat and milk, but also wool and leather for clothing and manure for crops. In many regions, women play a key role in their care and management, making small ruminant farming an important pathway to financial independence and family wellbeing. 

Yet behind this familiar scene lies a less visible reality. The movement of animals, essential as it is for trade and survival, also creates opportunities for disease to spread. The risk of moving sheep and goats is rarely obvious to buyers or sellers, but it shapes the health of flocks and the stability of markets. 

A journey that connects farms and markets

Sheep and goats are among the most mobile domestic animals in the world. Herders move them in search of pasture and water through seasonal migrations known as transhumance, travel long distances to reach markets, and trade them across regions and borders. Each journey brings animals from different herds into close contact. A healthy-looking sheep may have picked up an infection days earlier without showing signs. Stress from transport, crowding and changes in feed can weaken its defences and make it more likely to pass an illness on to others.

In some countries, surveys of livestock markets have shown just how intense these movements can be, with thousands of animals changing hands over short periods of time. When animals move quickly and often, it becomes difficult to know where they came from or where they will go next. If disease appears, tracing its path can be like trying to follow footprints in sand.

Certain infections take particular advantage of this mobility. Peste des petits ruminants, a highly contagious disease of sheep and goats, can spread rapidly along trade routes and wipe out entire flocks. Foot and mouth disease affects all cloven-hoofed animals and can disrupt both local markets and international trade, for which sheep and goats can be silent carriers. Some diseases, like brucellosis, can also affect humans. For households that depend on only a few animals, the loss of a flock can mean the loss of income, food and a sense of security.

These impacts extend beyond individual farmers. When outbreaks occur, they can destabilise supply chains, raise food prices and place heavy demands on Veterinary Services. The consequences are felt not only in rural areas but also in towns and cities where people rely on steady access to animal products.

Protecting livelihoods by protecting animal health 

For this reason, animal health experts increasingly focus on understanding how and why animals move. Mapping routes between farms, markets and grazing areas helps identify where risks are highest. Monitoring animal health at key gathering points makes it easier to detect problems early. Vaccination and basic animal identification and traceability systems can further reduce the chances that disease will travel unnoticed.

The World Organisation for Animal Health and its partners have highlighted these links between movement and disease spread, not to discourage trade or long-standing practices, but to make them safer by facilitating animal movement control. The aim is not to stop animals from moving, but to ensure that their journeys do not carry hidden threats.

Small ruminants are more than commodities. They are savings accounts on four legs, sources of nourishment and symbols of resilience for millions of families. They support women’s economic participation and help households weather difficult times. Their value is measured not only in money, but in stability and dignity.

When a sheep or goat begins a journey, it carries more than its own weight. It carries the hopes of the household that raised it and, sometimes, the risk of disease if safeguards are not in place. Understanding this connection is not just a technical matter. It is about protecting livelihoods, strengthening food systems and ensuring that the movement of animals remains a source of opportunity rather than vulnerability.

Achieving this requires shared responsibility. Farmers, traders and Veterinary Services all play a role in keeping animals healthy as they move — by exchanging information, applying basic biosecurity measures and responding quickly when risks emerge. By paying attention to how animals travel, and by supporting practices that keep them healthy along the way, everyone can help ensure that these journeys remain a path to prosperity instead of a pathway for disease.

This year’s World Wildlife Day, we celebrate the awe-inspiring functionality and beauty of the green that surrounds us. Plants and vegetation are far from being a simple backdrop to the rest of humanity: they sustain life on Earth. But just like animals and humans, they are being affected by world-changing events, including the climate crisis and other man-made activities. This makes it urgent for One Health practitioners to envision and enable a future where ecosystem interdependence is enhanced by shifted mindsets, ecological strategies and renewed efforts to ensure everyone’s health.


From feeding terrestrial animals to providing a critical infrastructure to underwater natural beings, plants play a key role in the global health ecosystem, from land to sea. They clean air and water, build soil and support other living things.  It’s not a one-way street though – right next door, a whole world of thriving animals quietly enables plants to flourish. 

Although largely unseen, animals – including wildlife – are crucial for the wellbeing of plants. From pollination to seed dispersal and nutrient cycling, they play a vital role in sustaining the plant ecosystem as we know it, providing services that are essential for its survival. The mutually beneficial relationship between the animal and plant worlds has created a web of self-reinforcing living networks unlike any other. When one thrives, so does the other.

Some species, such as great apes, have even discovered how to use plants for their own healing. Humans have long observed wild animals throughout this process and then adapted these behaviors into human medicine. This highlights how a healthy animal-plant-human chain can make the world a better, healthier place. But as Earth’s environments become increasingly interconnected, there are threats to plant ecosystems that have become impossible to ignore.

Protecting plants under water 

Plants are everywhere around us, even in places we don’t get to see or experience every day. Just think about the vibrant ecosystem of plants living underwater. Aquatic plants play a crucial role in maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystems, including aquatic animals and wildlife. Their tasks include supplying reliable food source, producing oxygen, improving water quality and providing habitat for a wide range of fish and wildlife. They even offer safe areas for a variety of species, offering shelter for fish and invertebrates.

This close-tight relationship highlights how the health of aquatic plant communities is crucial for supporting resilient aquatic animal populations. It’s essential for these invaluable plant resources to survive in the wild. But this symbiotic experience also means that aquatic species may easily be affected by the recurrent issue of toxicity affecting plants. Whenever there is a lot of rain, the biological composition of plants, in fact, can change. Some species then get easily affected by a neurotoxin produced by algae. Among the more susceptible species are fish, aquatic invertebrates such as snails and zoo plankton. Interestingly, some underwater plants can be affected by agricultural runoff.

Many of these valuable underwater plants face further threats from habitat destruction, overharvesting, climate change and unregulated or illegal trade. Raising awareness, strengthening regulations and ensuring the sustainability of harvesting and trade have become important action points. “Conservation of aquatic plants is a global priority. This is also a powerful reminder that we need to stick to a One Health approach, as we know plant health is one of the pillars of ecosystems’ integrity”, says Dr Mwansa Songe, Member of the WOAH Working Group on Wildlife. “Everything needs to be addressed as a single system. It has become crucial for players in the policy field to take the lead with a holistic approach. This is the only way to prevent and mitigate threats at their source.”

A toxic legacy: how lead poisoning threatens global health  

Changes in the weather are not the only factor that has been endangering plant health. Another phenomenon is putting plants under threat, with severe health and ecological impacts: lead poisoning. Primarily caused by ingestion of lead from ammunition and fishing tackle, lead pollution can have catastrophic consequences for the plant-wildlife chain.

The high density of lead has made it the ammunition of choice for centuries despite its toxicity. The impacts of lead shot ingestion and poisoning in wildlife have been observed since the nineteenth century. When plants grown in contaminated soil, such as near shooting ranges or wherever hunters discharge high volumes of shot, they absorb high concentrations of lead in their tissues. This heavy metal exposure causes reduced growth, with studies on important agricultural forage species like Festuca arundinacea, Trifolium pratense, and Medicago sativa showing up to 30% lower shoot heights and shorter roots. Photosynthetic pigments also decline, impairing vitality, while lead transfers up the food chain – from plants to herbivores and then predators – risking widespread ecological toxicity. Lead ammunition deposited on agricultural land creates two pathways of exposure for animals and humans. Firstly, the heavy metal can be absorbed by plants used for human consumption as well as by grazing ruminants delivering milk and meat, and secondly, livestock can directly ingest lead shot or bullet fragments, so contaminating milk, meat and eggs and poisoning the animals.

Every year, millions of birds are poisoned to death following ingestion of lead shot mistaking them for food items or grit used in their gizzards to grind up food. Scavengers like eagles and vultures, often our most threatened species, are dying across the world from lead shot or bullet fragments left in hunted game. These birds inadvertently swallow the fragments in prey and carrion, then their strong stomach acid dissolves the lead pieces, letting it flood into their blood. Scavenging mammals are exposed to these bullet fragments too and can be poisoned, but mortality is higher in birds due to the level of exposure and their unique digestion system.

Lead poisoning also causes a range of sub-lethal impacts – birds’ ability to fly is affected, causing collisions with infrastructure such as power cables and a compromised immune system for wild species.

We have to think about health holistically, an individual with a compromised immune system is at far greater risk of infectious disease. In times of an unprecedented highly pathogenic avian influenza pandemic we do not need less and less resilient wildlife populations, not only for their own sakes but for risks to other sectors too.

Dr Ruth Cromie, WWT Research Fellow.

Beyond the toxic legacy created by contamination of soils by the 10,000s of tonnes of lead ammunition released every year, and the wildlife and livestock affected, people are at risk too.

This really is a One Health problem. Recognising that lead affects nearly every system in the human body, firing such a highly toxic substance into your food is an extraordinary thing to do.

Dr Ruth Cromie, WWT Research Fellow.

“The potent damaging effect of lead on the developing brain is very well understood. Maybe hunters do not mind risking increased risks of blood pressure and kidney disease but when they are feeding lead-killed game meat to their children they are putting them at serious risk of neurological harm.” adds Cromie. For others buying game meat, the lack of regulatory maximum lead levels leaves consumers exposed and in a regulatory fog.

Despite the known risks, solving the problems has proved hard because of a combination of cultural factors and industry resistance. Non-toxic alternatives do exist, but without regulation to embed their use, change is pitifully slow. Cromie knows that in the future we will look back and wonder why we did not prevent the use of lead ammunition sooner but is still hopeful that policy makers will follow the evidence, recognise the One Health benefits to be gained from using non-toxic substitutes and put health protection first. Along with regulation, there are needs for further research and development and improved access to alternatives that respect our shared ecosystems – especially in underserved areas – and resources to help hunters switch to non-lead tools. This will also translate into a substantial reduction in wildlife mortality and associated welfare benefits that will only have positive effects on everyone’s health.

From pharmaceuticals seeping into waterways to veterinary drugs disrupting ecosystems and heavy metals poisoning animals across the globe, The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) recognises the challenges that wildlife and our interconnected ecosystem faces. Yet, solutions are possible through One Health. Managing these major global health risks cannot be done in isolation or by one sector alone. The approach goes beyond single diseases and calls for the full cooperation of the animal, human, plant and environment health sectors. In the light of this, WOAH continues to bring its expertise in animal health and welfare to diverse, much-needed multi-sectoral partnerships.

Over the past year, gender in the veterinary profession has become a prominent topic within WOAH. Side events – including one held during the 92nd General Session – have showcased Members’ strong commitment to joining the global conversation and advancing gender equality. 

Worldwide, veterinary medicine has experienced what many call ‘feminisation’, with women now representing roughly half of all practitioners and nearly 80% of veterinary students. This rapid shift has brought renewed focus to issues such as leadership representation, workforce sustainability and the future of Veterinary Services. At the same time, declining numbers of men entering the profession raise questions about diversity and the sector’s ability to meet essential functions over the long term. 

But breaking the cycle isn’t enough. While more women are now entering veterinary schools and joining the profession, the trend does not automatically translate into fair representation across leadership roles, field assignments, pay or decision-making authority. In fact, structural inequalities persist. Leadership positions, practice ownership and field roles are still disproportionately taken up by men. By contrast, women are often concentrated in laboratory, pet-care, administrative or support functions, where influence and authority are relatively limited. To compound the challenge, the veterinary pay gap remains stubbornly real. Women veterinarians are still paid less than men, especially among new graduates and top earners – a pattern driven by outdated workplace structures and deep-rooted gender stereotypes. 

Declining male participation in the workforce adds a unique layer of complexity, reshaping how the profession operates. According to recent data, every 1% increase in women in a veterinary college student body, approximately 1.7 fewer men apply the following year. While the causes remain to be clarified, the implications are nothing short of obvious: chronic shortages in rural and physically demanding roles in the field, where women face limitations due to safety concerns and are offered poor benefits. 

“We’ve got entire industries, professions, and workforces that were designed by men,” comments E. Scott Osborne, President of “Through Women’s Eyes”. “Whether it be the physical environment, the corporate hierarchy, the times they work, the way people advance, the criteria they’re promoted on – it was all designed by men. Until literally the last half century, men created systems to meet the needs, goals, priorities, and schedules of men, often during a time when many had a wife who did not work outside the home. We now live in a world where many women are in the labour force, but those systems have largely remained unchanged.” 

In other words, growing female participation also highlights the system’s failure to adapt to changes in the workforce. Without addressing structural and cultural barriers, the combined effect of “feminisation” and declining male enrolment risks producing the outright opposite outcome: weakening service coverage and disrupting the continuity of essential veterinary functions.

Emerging priorities for gender equality 

WOAH has engaged with Members during recent institutional events to identify their priorities related to workforce feminisation and to inform how a future organisational gender strategy could help drive change.

Key challenges identified include: 

In light of these challenges, Members have overwhelmingly expressed a desire for WOAH to actively support gender-responsive strategies that make the community more inclusive. They also want WOAH to collect and analyse workforce data and provide guidance on using these insights to shape policies that are equitable and sustainable. 

Looking ahead: a shared vision for gender-responsive Veterinary Services

Recent gender assessment studies in Africa and Asia and the Pacific commissioned by WOAH have shed light on underrepresented female leadership and imbalanced distribution of field assignments.  

Findings also show that organisational culture, access to training and supportive leadership are critical to shaping gender-responsive workforce policies in the sector – from targeted leadership development programs to quota systems that ensure balanced representation. 

While these assessments provide useful information, they also reveal a gap: Veterinary Services need a stronger culture of using data to guide workforce policies. Systematically collecting, analysing and applying evidence is a missing piece that can help close the final gap and achieve sustainable gender equality. This analytical, data-driven approach is reinforced in the recommendations from the Africa Continental Conference on Veterinary Workforce Development.  

But when it comes to collecting actionable data, the Veterinary Services aren’t alone. In fact, veterinary schools can be valuable partners in pursuing this task.  Gender-disaggregated data from across schools can help understand how gender norms, expectations and perceptions of the profession shape students’ choices before they even enter the workforce. This is especially important as veterinary studies record falling of male enrolments, likely influenced by career prospects, remuneration and societal norms that link animal care with nurturing roles women are traditionally assigned to. 

One thing is clearer than ever: strengthening analytical capacity is not just a technical requirement, but a strategic investment that gives policymakers the information they need to advance progress within the animal health sector. 

As the veterinary profession becomes increasingly female, understanding the full nuance of this change is essential. It raises important questions about the future of the field: How do workplace structures distribute opportunity and allow for equitable leadership? Could the decline in male applicants be contributing to workforce shortages in remote areas, where women are still underrepresented? And how are shifting gender dynamics influencing professional identity, career aspiration, and the overall appeal of veterinary work?

Exploring these questions through an analytical approach grounded in data allows WOAH and its Members to move beyond numerical trends and understand the mechanisms underlying workforce organisation, distribution, and resilience.

With this complexity taken into account, WOAH and its Members are working together to build Veterinary Services that are equitable, future-proof, and better positioned to protect animal and public health. WOAH is committed to using insights collected through Member consultations and gender assessment studies to inform a comprehensive gender strategy that elevates promising practices, strengthens global evidence, and ensures that the veterinary profession remains vibrant, inclusive and attractive for all.

When wildlife and livestock share the same environments, opportunities for pathogens to move between them increase. This is especially a problem when it comes to transboundary animal diseases (TADs) such as African swine fever (ASF), high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI), and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) which continue to spread globally, affecting animal health and the livelihoods of the people who depend on them.  

Have you read?

The Second Observatory Monitoring Report is now available, offering fresh insights into the global uptake of animal health standards. The report highlights how Brazil not only implemented zoning effectively but also played a key role in shaping the international standards underpinning this practice. Initially used as a tool to eradicate foot and mouth disease, zoning has since proven to be a powerful mechanism for accessing international markets. These experiences demonstrate why the report’s recommendations may be particularly valuable for decision-makers worldwide.

The core mandate of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) is to establish international standards that ensure animal health and welfare, support disease control and eradication, and facilitate the safe international trade of animals and animal products. These standards can be understood as agreed-upon measures adopted by all countries, which in turn inform national strategies and regulations related to animal health and welfare.

Marcelo de Andrade Mota is the Director of the Veterinary Services of Brazil and the WOAH Delegate for the country. In 2025, he led the successful effort to have Brazil recognised as foot and mouth disease-free across its entire territory. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is one of the six diseases for which WOAH grants official disease-free status. The implementation of WOAH zoning standards – which Brazil helped to develop – played a crucial role in this achievement. Marcelo de Andrade Mota is therefore well aware of both the potential and the challenges associated with these standards:

“I think the most interesting part of WOAH’s standard-setting process is that it is based on consensus, which is essential for enabling countries to actually implement the standards. That said, we have to be honest: we delegates agree on standards in Paris at WOAH, and that is great. But once we return home, we have to do our homework. We must follow up, implement the rules in our national context, and negotiate with relevant stakeholders. This can be challenging, but the fact that these standards are set through consensus serves as a reminder of the importance of their uptake.”

To assess if and how standards are implemented by countries, WOAH’s Observatory has published its Second Monitoring Report. Brazil’s case study provides a clear example of the importance of standards and the positive impact they can have at multiple levels. 

Using and improving zoning standards in Brazil 

Zoning is a practice that allows Veterinary Authorities to divide a country’s territory into smaller areas, each with animals of a specific health status for a given disease. This way, if an outbreak occurs in one area, it can be contained without affecting other zones, allowing activities and trade to continue as usual in disease-free regions. To implement zoning effectively, countries must establish animal identification, movement controls and biosecurity measures. Maintaining disease-free zones supports the safe production and trade of animals and their products.

Recommendations from the Observatory

The Second Observatory Monitoring Report provides practical recommendations for both WOAH and its Members to improve the implementation of these standards. For example, WOAH recommends that Members apply functional measures, such as movement controls, to support zoning. It also recommends considering using the measure alongside WOAH mechanisms such as official recognition of status and self-declaration, which can facilitate bilateral trade agreements. This approach aligns closely with Brazil’s experience and could resonate with the interests of many other countries.

The world today is more interconnected and countries are increasingly interested on maintaining safe trade. Measures like zoning help mitigate the risks and economic impacts of animal diseases on international trade. Now that Brazil is FMD-free, our goal is to leverage this status and our efficient zoning system, recognised by WOAH, in trade agreements.

Marcelo de Andrade Mota
Director, Veterinary Services of Brazil and WOAH Delegate.

This would be possible thanks to international standards. For a country to have its zoning strategy endorsed by WOAH, it must comply with WOAH standards. However, this is not a one-way process in which countries simply adapt to externally set rules. Drawing on its domestic experience and successes, Brazil has been actively involved in discussions on zoning standards since the 1980s, helping shape them through consensus with other countries. As Dr. de Andrade Mota explains: “Implementing WOAH recognised standards is a game-changer. They not only safeguard animal health and elevate Veterinary Services, but also unlock access to global markets, drive economic growth, and position countries as trusted partners in a secure, sustainable livestock supply chain.”

After intense rainfall in September 2025, Rift Valley fever emerged across Senegal, Mauritania and Gambia, severely affecting both animals and humans. Although the disease is not new to these countries, its impact fluctuates significantly over time, underscoring the importance of preparedness and surveillance. During the peak of the epidemic, Senegal demonstrated how timely data collection and reporting through the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) can make the difference.

Between 16 and 18 September 2025, Mathioro Fall was in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, attending a training session by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) on reporting animal diseases through WAHIS. As head of the animal health protection division at the ministry of agriculture, food sovereignty and livestock of Senegal, Dr. Fall is responsible for submitting animal disease outbreak updates to WAHIS — the reason for his trip to Côte d’Ivoire. 

At that time, Rift Valley fever had already been present in Senegal, being reported since at least September 2020 in the Rao region. Shortly after completing the training, Dr. Fall logged in to WAHIS to close the previous event and opened a new one, due to an increase in Rift Valley fever outbreaks in both animals and humans. In fact, by the end of September, Senegalese health authorities confirmed human infections, including several fatalities, marking the beginning of a major event spanning Senegal, Mauritania and Gambia. This epidemic event was later recognised as high risk for human and animal health at national level by the joint assessment of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and WOAH.

In early December, Mathioro Fall was back in Saint-Louis — a four-hour drive from Dakar, the capital of Senegal — for a follow-up mission on the Rift Valley fever outbreaks. According to the data he has been collecting and sharing weekly with the international community, the epidemic appears to have reached its peak and case numbers are now expected to decline over time. 

“The containment measures are proving effective,” explains Dr. Fall during a break from his field mission. “But we are now reviewing the actions taken to develop an improvement plan for future epidemics. Rift Valley fever is a priority disease in Senegal: we know the hotspots where it is likely to reoccur, and we know it has a cyclical pattern. It typically returns every two to three years, so this is the time to learn from what we have done and to strengthen surveillance and prevention across animal populations.” 

Monitoring animal infections, to protect everyone’s health 

Rift Valley fever is a vector-borne disease that can affect different animal species. The virus is carried and spread by mosquitoes and, in some cases, it can even survive for years in their eggs, including under dry conditions. When heavy rain causes the eggs to hatch, the virus can re-emerge and begin spreading again among animals. Humans can also become infected, most commonly through contact with the blood or bodily fluids of infected animals, but also through bites from mosquitoes. 

The disease is particularly harmful to young lambs and goats, with mortality rates ranging from 70% to 100%. In sheep and calves, mortality drops to 20% to 70%, and it varies widely across other species. Pregnant sheep and cattle almost always abort: an outcome that is both devastating for farmers and a crucial sign for epidemiologists. As Dr. Fall explains: “Alongside targeted vaccinations, active surveillance of sentinel species and the use of insecticides on farms, we must work on raising farmers’ awareness on the disease symptoms so they can efficiently report abortions in their animals. This helps us recognise an outbreak in progress and ultimately allows our colleagues in human health to be alerted to any potential emerging threats.” 

Diseases across borders  

The map shows the outbreaks of Rift Valley fever reported by Senegal, Mauritania and Gambia through WAHIS between 30 September and 10 December 2025.

Like all diseases, Rift Valley fever knows no borders, and its vector-borne nature makes it particularly difficult to contain within a specific area. Senegal is not the only country affected by outbreaks in late 2025. Mauritania and Gambia reported cases during the same period, and South Africa also experienced a recurrence of the disease in an unrelated event. From the WAHIS disease-situation dashboard, it is possible to see that since 2023 the virus has been reported as present also in Burkina Faso, Burundi, Rwanda, Madagascar, Uganda, Ghana, Mozambique and Kenya. Reporting transparently the disease situation is the first step toward tackling the disease, as Dr Fall explains: 

One country alone can’t definitively control a transboundary disease. This year’s event was exceptional, but we would have notified the presence of the disease regardless, because it is our duty as a WOAH Member. Sharing data on current outbreaks is vital to help other countries understand the situation. 

Head of the animal health protection division at the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Livestock, Senegal.

“In the past, for example, we used WAHIS data to assess the animal disease situation in our trade partners. By notifying, we empower our colleagues in other countries to understand what is happening, assess the risks, prepare accordingly and, if needed, advocate for resources with solid evidence in hand.”, shares Dr Fall.

Rift Valley fever has made headlines in West Africa in recent months, and, like many vector-borne diseases, it is unlikely to disappear anytime soon. Its ability to infect both domestic and wild animals, combined with the effects of climate change and extreme weather events, means that people will likely need to become more familiar with this disease. In the meantime, animal health officials are already collecting and sharing data to ensure they are ready to make the best decisions when needed.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) – a devastating, highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants – jeopardises the economic development and security of the more than 330 million people worldwide who depend on them. Its morbidity and mortality rates, which can reach up to 100% in naïve populations, cause economic losses of up to USD 2.1 billion annually due to reduced productivity, lowered herd income, loss of livestock and trade opportunities, disruption of supply chains, exclusion from lucrative markets, treatment and vaccination costs, and job losses in the sector. 

A coordinated strategy to combat PPR

Since its first identification in 1942, PPR has spread to more than 70 countries across Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, becoming entrenched in many regions and posing a serious threat to livelihoods and local economies. In 2015, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) launched the PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy (PPR GCES) with the ambitious goal of eradicating the disease by 2030.  

Eradicating PPR would amount to much more than just the global eradication of an infectious disease. It would address security challenges, reduce illegal livestock movement and manage migration, especially amid growing instability and shocks from climate change. Beyond this, eliminating the disease could improve productivity, food security, income generation and social empowerment. Improving the health of small ruminant populations, can empower women and inch us closer to gender equity. 

Transforming veterinary services with public-private partnerships 

The continued spread of PPR and its entrenchment in endemic areas, which is exacerbated by limited access to veterinary services for marginalised communities, present real challenges in its eradication. However, successful PPR vaccine campaigns Morocco and the Sahel Regional Project Supporting Pastoralism (PRAPS) which targets PPR control in the Sahel region (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal) clearly demonstrate that, with investment in Veterinary Services and incorporating vaccination in addition to biosecurity measures, eradicating PPR is indeed doable.  

Morocco has been investing in developing its private veterinary sector since the 1980s, and in doing so, the country has encouraged veterinary professionals to establish practices in rural areas to ensure regular support to farmers. The far-reaching presence of Morocco’s veterinary workforce provides an effective network of professionals whom animal health authorities rely on when vaccination campaigns need to be deployed.

We have a well-developed private veterinary sector in almost every region of Morocco, which provides significant support in conducting livestock vaccination campaigns against several animal diseases, particularly PPR, helping us to achieve a very high vaccination coverage rate.

Dr. Abderrahman Abouyassir, 
WOAH Delegate for Morocco.

 “Their support has been crucial in reaching our objectives, particularly in covering as many livestock farmers as possible at national level, as well as raising awareness and motivating farmers to participate in the vaccination campaigns.”, explains Dr. Abderrahman Abouyassir.

Eradicating PPR does not only benefit sheep and goats, but also about livelihoods, people’s nutrition and health, local economies, and access to education and health care. By fighting diseases such as PPR, veterinary professionals and paraprofessionals contribute to improving animal health and welfare and work towards a better life for our society. Creating lasting veterinary infrastructure for quality vaccine production, diagnostics and training of community animal care workers not only addresses animal disease but also addresses broader global challenges. In areas where women are often underrepresented in formal veterinary systems and decision-making processes, for example, training them as community animal health workers could not only strengthens animal health services but also empower them with skills, recognition, and a more impactful voice in their communities. 

WOAH encourages its Members to remain committed to eradicating PPR through renewed investment in veterinary services. By keeping animals safe, Members protect and empower their communities and keep their economies growing. A well-trained, well-equipped veterinary workforce is essential to ensure the health and well-being of animals and the people who depend on them. Together, we can safeguard livelihoods, strengthen food security, and build a resilient future for communities dependent on small ruminants for their livelihoods.  

 

They provide manure for fertilising crops, act as insurance for crop failure and drought, and contribute to national economic development and the overall well-being of communities. Small ruminants are often the most critical, and sometimes the only, asset some populations rely on for survival. In these communities, peste des petits ruminants (PPR) – the highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants – is devastating.  

Never forgettable is the distress, disbelief and anguish in the faces of the women and men as they held their dying goats that they were relying on for so much – dying because of a disease that is 100% preventable. This is PPR – not just a virus but a destroyer of lives.

Dr Paula Menzies, President of the International Sheep Veterinary Association and board member of the International Goat Association. 

Since its first identification in 1942, PPR has spread to more than 70 countries across Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, becoming entrenched in many regions. Losses caused by PPR, go beyond the infected animal, they include reduced productivity leading to lower herd income, loss of nutrition and even a lost way of life. “For nomadic herders, PPR is more than a disease – it threatens their livelihoods, food security, and cultural identity.” , says pastoralist expert Dr Amarsanaa Lkhagvasuren, “Small ruminants are central to their way of life.”  

In 2015, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) launched the PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy (PPR GCES) with the ambitious goal of eradicating the disease by 2030. Ten years on, we see that sustained, coordinated global effort remains as imperative as ever to ensure the eradication of PPR and to build resilience for communities reliant on small ruminants.  

During a PPR outbreak in a Maasai area, I saw herders devastated from losing up to 10-20 goats per day in a flock of 600-1000 sheep and goats. In Burundi, I interacted with farmers who owned 5-10 goats each, and they were losing them to PPR, leaving them in distress as their kids couldn’t go to school anymore.

Dr Adama Diallo, PPR Expert and member of the PPR Advisory Committee.

The continued spread of PPR into new regions and its entrenchment in endemic areas, exacerbated by limited access to veterinary services for marginalised communities, make eradicating the disease challenging, but not impossible. Success depends on implementing key interventions like strict livestock movement, vaccination, education, investment in a well-equipped veterinary workforce and support to the communities most vulnerable to the disease.  

Women and youth, in particular, are often the first to detect signs of illness in animals, as they are intimately involved in their daily care. Despite this, they remain underrepresented in formal veterinary systems, excluded from key decision-making processes and ill-equipped to respond to the disease effectively. “We must recognise, support, and elevate the voices of nomadic women and youth,” urges Dr Lkhagvasuren.  “Women and youth are not merely beneficiaries of interventions. They are essential partners and leaders whose knowledge, care, and perspectives are vital to the success of the eradication efforts.” Dr Menzies echoes this sentiment adding, “Engaging nomadic livestock keepers—especially women and youth—is not optional; it is essential to eradicating PPR.” 

When families are economically empowered, they can plan their lives better, they no longer strive to move long distances for survival, thereby reducing illegal livestock movement and, managing rural to urban migration, they can take their children to school, diversify their family incomes, take better care of the environment and indirectly contribute to addressing security challenges – particularly in the context of growing instability, climate change and other emerging threats.  

Peste des petits ruminants is not only about sheep and goat’s morbidity and mortality, but also about livelihoods, nutrition, health and access to education and health care. As such, WOAH calls its Members to commit to enhance their collaboration and cooperation to implement harmonised eradication strategies to eliminate the disease. This can only be made possible when there is coordinated and harmonised resource mobilisation efforts. Peste des petits ruminants is a priority disease, and its elimination will depend on Members commitment and capacity to mobilize domestic resources. We urge governments and resource partners to position funding for its eradication as a priority. In doing so, we can safeguard livelihoods, strengthen food security, and build a resilient future for communities dependent on small ruminants for their livelihoods. 

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Contrary to common assumptions among animal health experts, when new outbreaks occur, limited capability and organisational knowledge are greater barriers to disease notification than fear of repercussions for the farming sector. This finding comes from a new study by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) in the Asia-Pacific region, which for the first time applies a behavioural approach to this issue. 

When an animal disease outbreak occurs, information is key to control the spread of the disease and to ensure that farmers in the area and in neighbouring countries can continue their usual activities, while safeguarding animal health above all. To facilitate the sharing of useful information on animal disease events, WOAH created the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS): a platform through which our Members are required to notify any outbreak of listed animal diseases in their territory. 

This is the theory, then comes the practice. Animal health professionals must put these rules into action, and that can be challenging. There are many reasons why a WOAH Member might fail to notify a disease, some of which have become common assumptions among animal health experts. Limited capacity, time constraints, or fear of international scrutiny are just a few of the barriers often cited as obstacles to timely notification. However, new research from the Asia-Pacific region offers fresh insights into why some Members do not report animal diseases to WOAH. 

Debunking common assumptions  

While these assumptions about the barriers to notification are not necessarily incorrect, the report “Identifying barriers to notification of terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases in Asia-Pacific” shows how applying a behavioural approach to this issue can offer a new perspective. 

With that in mind, the study showed that, contrary to common belief, there is no evidence supporting the idea that the importance of a sector influences the intention to notify a disease. In other words, countries are not less willing to report an outbreak simply because it affects a major animal sector in their territory. Another common assumption that needs to be reframed, at least in the Asia-Pacific region, concerns the perceived risk of notification. The study found that this perceived risk is actually low among the countries involved. Similarly, the analysis found no link between trust in trading partners and the intention to notify. Overall, these kinds of factors appear to be less influential on WOAH Members’ notification behaviour than previously thought.

Building on key findings  

On the other hand, the study shows that organisational knowledge and capability, as well as perceived behavioural control, are strong predictors of the intention to notify. In other words, countries are more likely to report a disease when the people responsible are well-trained and confident in the procedures they need to follow. Similarly, the easier the notification process is perceived to be, the more willing countries are to fulfil their reporting obligations. 

Another key takeaway from the study is the positive attitude toward notification and the perceived benefits of reporting shared by the countries participating in the survey and in related focus groups. 

Balancing risks and benefits

Our Members from the Asia-Pacific region involved in the study highlighted that the greatest risk they perceive when reporting a disease outbreak is the potential reduction in access to international markets. Conversely, they recognise that maintaining an international reputation for transparency is the most significant benefit. Overall, the survey findings indicate that there is room for improvement in the region and potentially at the global level as well. 

All summed up, the study revealed many positive aspects of notification in the region. Attitudes towards notification are strongly positive and the perceived benefits of notification are consistently strong. Despite these strengths, several key barriers were identified. These include challenges with diagnosis and laboratory confirmation, decision-making and administrative processes and constraints in surveillance and reporting systems. Drawing on these insights, the study developed actionable steps and key recommendations to build more resilient and responsive animal health systems across the Asian Pacific region.    

 

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a devastating, highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants. With morbidity and mortality rates reaching up to 100% in naïve populations, PPR causes economic losses of up to USD 2.1 billion annually. Beyond its economic impact, it severely undermines livelihoods, food security and nutrition, particularly in vulnerable regions where communities depend on small ruminants as a critical source of income and stability.  

Losses caused by PPR – which include reduced productivity, lower herd income, loss of livestock and trade opportunities, disruption of supply chains, exclusion from lucrative markets, treatment and vaccination costs, and job losses in the sector – directly affect global food security and increase poverty levels, especially in rural communities. Approximately a third of the financial impact occurs in Africa and a quarter in South Asia.  

PPR control and economic development 

“The benefits of PPR eradication are so much more than the elimination of an infectious disease.” says Dr. Paula Menzies, President of the International Sheep Veterinary Association and board member of the International Goat Association, “We know what the loss of their animals from disease, starvation or conflict does, not just to the economy but also to farmers’ social stability.” On the contrary, countries free from PPR enjoy direct economic benefits and trade opportunities in lucrative markets. And, in arid and semi-arid, hard-to-reach areas, PPR eradication and improved small ruminant health can address security challenges, reduce illegal livestock movement and manage migration, especially amid growing instability and shocks from climate change. 

A prime example is the Sahel Regional Project Supporting Pastoralism (PRAPS), co-funded by governments and the World Bank, targets PPR control in the Sahel region (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal). Between 2016 and 2022, 188 million doses of PPR vaccine were distributed in the region, including 32.2 million doses in 2022. In Niger, the revenue of pastoral and agro-pastoral households supported by the PRAPS increased by 24% between 2022 and 2025 and Mali recorded a 52% increase. The Sahel project does not only contribute to vaccination against PPR, but it also strengthens animal health services, infrastructures and agriculture – which, according to the World Bank, is 2-3 times more effective at reducing poverty than other sectors.

Continued commitment  

The transborder nature of the disease means its elimination requires robust coordination and partnerships between International Organisations like FAO and WOAH, regional organisations such as African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU IBAR)*, and all partners involved in the Global Framework for the Progressive Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF-TADs) at both global and regional levels. In the ten years since the launch of the GCES, WOAH has remained committed to the eradication of PPR. And, as PPR continues to ravage communities – particularly in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia which host over 80% of the world’s small ruminant population – we urge our Members to harmonise their control and eradication efforts and mobilise sufficient financial resources to ensure well equipped Veterinary Services. 

PPR has the potential to become the second animal disease to be eradicated in history following rinderpest. Its eradication would reduce world poverty and improve global food security, proving that PPR is not only about sheep and goat’s morbidity and mortality but a disease that affects the well-being of over 300 million rural families worldwide who rely on small ruminant farming. Eradicating PPR is not a cost, but an investment in a better future for all. 

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