Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) – a devastating, highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants – jeopardises the economic development and security of the more than 330 million people worldwide who depend on them. Its morbidity and mortality rates, which can reach up to 100% in naïve populations, cause economic losses of up to USD 2.1 billion annually due to reduced productivity, lowered herd income, loss of livestock and trade opportunities, disruption of supply chains, exclusion from lucrative markets, treatment and vaccination costs, and job losses in the sector. 

A coordinated strategy to combat PPR

Since its first identification in 1942, PPR has spread to more than 70 countries across Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, becoming entrenched in many regions and posing a serious threat to livelihoods and local economies. In 2015, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) launched the PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy (PPR GCES) with the ambitious goal of eradicating the disease by 2030.  

Eradicating PPR would amount to much more than just the global eradication of an infectious disease. It would address security challenges, reduce illegal livestock movement and manage migration, especially amid growing instability and shocks from climate change. Beyond this, eliminating the disease could improve productivity, food security, income generation and social empowerment. Improving the health of small ruminant populations, can empower women and inch us closer to gender equity. 

Transforming veterinary services with public-private partnerships 

The continued spread of PPR and its entrenchment in endemic areas, which is exacerbated by limited access to veterinary services for marginalised communities, present real challenges in its eradication. However, successful PPR vaccine campaigns Morocco and the Sahel Regional Project Supporting Pastoralism (PRAPS) which targets PPR control in the Sahel region (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal) clearly demonstrate that, with investment in Veterinary Services and incorporating vaccination in addition to biosecurity measures, eradicating PPR is indeed doable.  

Morocco has been investing in developing its private veterinary sector since the 1980s, and in doing so, the country has encouraged veterinary professionals to establish practices in rural areas to ensure regular support to farmers. The far-reaching presence of Morocco’s veterinary workforce provides an effective network of professionals whom animal health authorities rely on when vaccination campaigns need to be deployed.

We have a well-developed private veterinary sector in almost every region of Morocco, which provides significant support in conducting livestock vaccination campaigns against several animal diseases, particularly PPR, helping us to achieve a very high vaccination coverage rate.

Dr. Abderrahman Abouyassir, 
WOAH Delegate for Morocco.

 “Their support has been crucial in reaching our objectives, particularly in covering as many livestock farmers as possible at national level, as well as raising awareness and motivating farmers to participate in the vaccination campaigns.”, explains Dr. Abderrahman Abouyassir.

Eradicating PPR does not only benefit sheep and goats, but also about livelihoods, people’s nutrition and health, local economies, and access to education and health care. By fighting diseases such as PPR, veterinary professionals and paraprofessionals contribute to improving animal health and welfare and work towards a better life for our society. Creating lasting veterinary infrastructure for quality vaccine production, diagnostics and training of community animal care workers not only addresses animal disease but also addresses broader global challenges. In areas where women are often underrepresented in formal veterinary systems and decision-making processes, for example, training them as community animal health workers could not only strengthens animal health services but also empower them with skills, recognition, and a more impactful voice in their communities. 

WOAH encourages its Members to remain committed to eradicating PPR through renewed investment in veterinary services. By keeping animals safe, Members protect and empower their communities and keep their economies growing. A well-trained, well-equipped veterinary workforce is essential to ensure the health and well-being of animals and the people who depend on them. Together, we can safeguard livelihoods, strengthen food security, and build a resilient future for communities dependent on small ruminants for their livelihoods.  

They provide manure for fertilising crops, act as insurance for crop failure and drought, and contribute to national economic development and the overall well-being of communities. Small ruminants are often the most critical, and sometimes the only, asset some populations rely on for survival. In these communities, peste des petits ruminants (PPR) – the highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants – is devastating.  

Never forgettable is the distress, disbelief and anguish in the faces of the women and men as they held their dying goats that they were relying on for so much – dying because of a disease that is 100% preventable. This is PPR – not just a virus but a destroyer of lives.

Dr Paula Menzies, President of the International Sheep Veterinary Association and board member of the International Goat Association. 

Since its first identification in 1942, PPR has spread to more than 70 countries across Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, becoming entrenched in many regions. Losses caused by PPR, go beyond the infected animal, they include reduced productivity leading to lower herd income, loss of nutrition and even a lost way of life. “For nomadic herders, PPR is more than a disease – it threatens their livelihoods, food security, and cultural identity.” , says pastoralist expert Dr Amarsanaa Lkhagvasuren, “Small ruminants are central to their way of life.”  

In 2015, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) launched the PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy (PPR GCES) with the ambitious goal of eradicating the disease by 2030. Ten years on, we see that sustained, coordinated global effort remains as imperative as ever to ensure the eradication of PPR and to build resilience for communities reliant on small ruminants.  

During a PPR outbreak in a Maasai area, I saw herders devastated from losing up to 10-20 goats per day in a flock of 600-1000 sheep and goats. In Burundi, I interacted with farmers who owned 5-10 goats each, and they were losing them to PPR, leaving them in distress as their kids couldn’t go to school anymore.

Dr Adama Diallo, PPR Expert and member of the PPR Advisory Committee.

The continued spread of PPR into new regions and its entrenchment in endemic areas, exacerbated by limited access to veterinary services for marginalised communities, make eradicating the disease challenging, but not impossible. Success depends on implementing key interventions like strict livestock movement, vaccination, education, investment in a well-equipped veterinary workforce and support to the communities most vulnerable to the disease.  

Women and youth, in particular, are often the first to detect signs of illness in animals, as they are intimately involved in their daily care. Despite this, they remain underrepresented in formal veterinary systems, excluded from key decision-making processes and ill-equipped to respond to the disease effectively. “We must recognise, support, and elevate the voices of nomadic women and youth,” urges Dr Lkhagvasuren.  “Women and youth are not merely beneficiaries of interventions. They are essential partners and leaders whose knowledge, care, and perspectives are vital to the success of the eradication efforts.” Dr Menzies echoes this sentiment adding, “Engaging nomadic livestock keepers—especially women and youth—is not optional; it is essential to eradicating PPR.” 

When families are economically empowered, they can plan their lives better, they no longer strive to move long distances for survival, thereby reducing illegal livestock movement and, managing rural to urban migration, they can take their children to school, diversify their family incomes, take better care of the environment and indirectly contribute to addressing security challenges – particularly in the context of growing instability, climate change and other emerging threats.  

Peste des petits ruminants is not only about sheep and goat’s morbidity and mortality, but also about livelihoods, nutrition, health and access to education and health care. As such, WOAH calls its Members to commit to enhance their collaboration and cooperation to implement harmonised eradication strategies to eliminate the disease. This can only be made possible when there is coordinated and harmonised resource mobilisation efforts. Peste des petits ruminants is a priority disease, and its elimination will depend on Members commitment and capacity to mobilize domestic resources. We urge governments and resource partners to position funding for its eradication as a priority. In doing so, we can safeguard livelihoods, strengthen food security, and build a resilient future for communities dependent on small ruminants for their livelihoods. 

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Contrary to common assumptions among animal health experts, when new outbreaks occur, limited capability and organisational knowledge are greater barriers to disease notification than fear of repercussions for the farming sector. This finding comes from a new study by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) in the Asia-Pacific region, which for the first time applies a behavioural approach to this issue. 

When an animal disease outbreak occurs, information is key to control the spread of the disease and to ensure that farmers in the area and in neighbouring countries can continue their usual activities, while safeguarding animal health above all. To facilitate the sharing of useful information on animal disease events, WOAH created the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS): a platform through which our Members are required to notify any outbreak of listed animal diseases in their territory. 

This is the theory, then comes the practice. Animal health professionals must put these rules into action, and that can be challenging. There are many reasons why a WOAH Member might fail to notify a disease, some of which have become common assumptions among animal health experts. Limited capacity, time constraints, or fear of international scrutiny are just a few of the barriers often cited as obstacles to timely notification. However, new research from the Asia-Pacific region offers fresh insights into why some Members do not report animal diseases to WOAH. 

Debunking common assumptions  

While these assumptions about the barriers to notification are not necessarily incorrect, the report “Identifying barriers to notification of terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases in Asia-Pacific” shows how applying a behavioural approach to this issue can offer a new perspective. 

With that in mind, the study showed that, contrary to common belief, there is no evidence supporting the idea that the importance of a sector influences the intention to notify a disease. In other words, countries are not less willing to report an outbreak simply because it affects a major animal sector in their territory. Another common assumption that needs to be reframed, at least in the Asia-Pacific region, concerns the perceived risk of notification. The study found that this perceived risk is actually low among the countries involved. Similarly, the analysis found no link between trust in trading partners and the intention to notify. Overall, these kinds of factors appear to be less influential on WOAH Members’ notification behaviour than previously thought.

Building on key findings  

On the other hand, the study shows that organisational knowledge and capability, as well as perceived behavioural control, are strong predictors of the intention to notify. In other words, countries are more likely to report a disease when the people responsible are well-trained and confident in the procedures they need to follow. Similarly, the easier the notification process is perceived to be, the more willing countries are to fulfil their reporting obligations. 

Another key takeaway from the study is the positive attitude toward notification and the perceived benefits of reporting shared by the countries participating in the survey and in related focus groups. 

Balancing risks and benefits

Our Members from the Asia-Pacific region involved in the study highlighted that the greatest risk they perceive when reporting a disease outbreak is the potential reduction in access to international markets. Conversely, they recognise that maintaining an international reputation for transparency is the most significant benefit. Overall, the survey findings indicate that there is room for improvement in the region and potentially at the global level as well. 

All summed up, the study revealed many positive aspects of notification in the region. Attitudes towards notification are strongly positive and the perceived benefits of notification are consistently strong. Despite these strengths, several key barriers were identified. These include challenges with diagnosis and laboratory confirmation, decision-making and administrative processes and constraints in surveillance and reporting systems. Drawing on these insights, the study developed actionable steps and key recommendations to build more resilient and responsive animal health systems across the Asian Pacific region.    

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a devastating, highly contagious viral disease that poses a severe threat to sheep, goats and certain species of wild ruminants. With morbidity and mortality rates reaching up to 100% in naïve populations, PPR causes economic losses of up to USD 2.1 billion annually. Beyond its economic impact, it severely undermines livelihoods, food security and nutrition, particularly in vulnerable regions where communities depend on small ruminants as a critical source of income and stability.  

Losses caused by PPR – which include reduced productivity, lower herd income, loss of livestock and trade opportunities, disruption of supply chains, exclusion from lucrative markets, treatment and vaccination costs, and job losses in the sector – directly affect global food security and increase poverty levels, especially in rural communities. Approximately a third of the financial impact occurs in Africa and a quarter in South Asia.  

PPR control and economic development 

“The benefits of PPR eradication are so much more than the elimination of an infectious disease.” says Dr. Paula Menzies, President of the International Sheep Veterinary Association and board member of the International Goat Association, “We know what the loss of their animals from disease, starvation or conflict does, not just to the economy but also to farmers’ social stability.” On the contrary, countries free from PPR enjoy direct economic benefits and trade opportunities in lucrative markets. And, in arid and semi-arid, hard-to-reach areas, PPR eradication and improved small ruminant health can address security challenges, reduce illegal livestock movement and manage migration, especially amid growing instability and shocks from climate change. 

A prime example is the Sahel Regional Project Supporting Pastoralism (PRAPS), co-funded by governments and the World Bank, targets PPR control in the Sahel region (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal). Between 2016 and 2022, 188 million doses of PPR vaccine were distributed in the region, including 32.2 million doses in 2022. In Niger, the revenue of pastoral and agro-pastoral households supported by the PRAPS increased by 24% between 2022 and 2025 and Mali recorded a 52% increase. The Sahel project does not only contribute to vaccination against PPR, but it also strengthens animal health services, infrastructures and agriculture – which, according to the World Bank, is 2-3 times more effective at reducing poverty than other sectors.

Continued commitment  

The transborder nature of the disease means its elimination requires robust coordination and partnerships between International Organisations like FAO and WOAH, regional organisations such as African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU IBAR)*, and all partners involved in the Global Framework for the Progressive Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF-TADs) at both global and regional levels. In the ten years since the launch of the GCES, WOAH has remained committed to the eradication of PPR. And, as PPR continues to ravage communities – particularly in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia which host over 80% of the world’s small ruminant population – we urge our Members to harmonise their control and eradication efforts and mobilise sufficient financial resources to ensure well equipped Veterinary Services. 

PPR has the potential to become the second animal disease to be eradicated in history following rinderpest. Its eradication would reduce world poverty and improve global food security, proving that PPR is not only about sheep and goat’s morbidity and mortality but a disease that affects the well-being of over 300 million rural families worldwide who rely on small ruminant farming. Eradicating PPR is not a cost, but an investment in a better future for all. 

A little over twenty years ago, a biological attack triggered worldwide alarm after deadly anthrax spores were sent via mail to media and government organisations across the United States of America (USA), infecting 22 people, five of which died. The so-called “Amerithrax” case, which sparked a multi-agency investigation, is remembered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as the most complex in the history of law enforcement to date. Although the world had been no stranger to bioterrorist attacks, this episode was bound to resonate widely and shape how communities and institutions worldwide prepare for unexpected threats.  

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease that causes high mortality in animals and can infect humans. Bacillus anthracis – the pathogen behind the disease – can enter the body of animals when they ingest or inhale bacterial spores present in the soil where they are feeding. Because the spores can easily contaminate feed and water, anthrax poses a serious threat to animal health. 

The disease can damage livestock production and cause significant shortfalls in animal food sources, thus impacting the livelihoods of farmers and more broadly those of entire communities. The potential impact on public health is equally devastating. Humans can be exposed to the pathogen through direct or indirect contact and, although more rarely, by eating meat from infected animals.   

A lesson learnt in emergency response 

The bioterrorist attacks in the United States of America have left a profound legacy behind. Among the first instances in recent history, a pathogen able to cause an infectious disease in animals and humans had emerged as a biological agent that can be weaponised in imaginative ways, including inhaling anthrax spores sent via mail. The events also heightened public fear of bioterrorism. In the aftermath of the attacks, any unidentified white powder was treated as a potential biological threat, leading to thousands of emergency responses, most of which turned out to be false alarms or hoaxes but still caused major disruption and high costs. 

Andy Weber, Senior Fellow at the Council on Strategic Risks and former Assistant Secretary of Defence for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defence Programs, believes that the events in the country struck a chord with the rest of the world. “Five people were killed, but the quality and quantity [the perpetrator used] could have caused much heavier consequences,” he says. 

We need to be aware of animal pathogens around the world and that also livestock can be an easy target for the introduction of animal pathogens, even more so in densely populated farms. The economic impact on agriculture could be staggering, too. Because it is hard for them to get caught, terrorist groups may also launch multiple attacks in different locations around the world with potential catastrophic ripple effects.

Andy Weber, Senior Fellow at the Council on Strategic Risks and former Assistant Secretary of Defence for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defence Programs.

There is an important lesson for the future to learn from the events. The law enforcement sector played an undeniably central role in 2001. Yet, for the sake of preparedness to biothreats – whether targeted to humans or to livestock – there are further linkages that need to be explored: representatives of the human, veterinary and public health community are all professional figures whose insights are key to responding to a biothreat with a zoonotic agent. Animal health professionals are uniquely positioned to assess whether the cause of an outbreak is natural or human made. In case of doubts or suspicions, they can warn law enforcement authorities who will evaluate whether the case is worth of criminal investigation. In turn, Law Enforcement officials can collect evidence about criminal activities and provide an early warning to Veterinary Services, who then shall intervene to contain the disease outbreak.  

Animal health emergencies represent a multi-faceted challenge that calls for a multisectoral approach. No single agency or sector, in fact, has enough expertise to tackle an emergency or mitigate its impacts. In some contexts, the expertise of other stakeholders such as the ones in security – whose priorities are not always targeted to health – is achingly needed. Only by combining the insights of both Law Enforcement agencies and Veterinary Services can effectively and timely respond to biothreats originating in animals – whether naturally occurring or deliberately released.  

Taking control over the next threats to health security

The complexity of today’s world only enhances the likelihood of error or inadequate response to a global health emergency. With changing weather patterns and temperatures on the rise, anthrax is indeed more likely to naturally occur. Droughts, for instance, can contribute to concentrating people and animals around water sources. At the same time, the fact that it’s inexpensive, alongside its widespread availability and flexible nature, make this biological agent a weapon of choice for individuals aiming to use science for malicious purposes, whether for financial gain or with the goal of bringing disruption.  

However, anthrax is not the only infectious agent that can pose a large-scale threat. Other animal pathogens and toxins can be used as weapons of biological warfare and/or biological terrorism, targeting livestock to cause famine and harm livelihoods.  

Andy Weber recalls that, back in the days, a large programme was developed to use contagious animal diseases such as African swine fever and rinderpest as weapons targeting cows, swine, sheep and other animals, alongside plants and crops. Additionally, because most biological weapons developed against humans are zoonotic, animal health laboratories need to be very careful their materials not being made available to potential terrorists.  

Towards a more resilient world 

Over the past 20 years, technological advances – such as synthetic biology – along with the widespread availability of these technologies, global instability, failures in international cooperation and the erosion of non-proliferation treaties, have contributed to a rising risk of biothreats. 

The anthrax experience revived the conversation around bioterrorism and sharpened the world’s focus on the need for preparedness. Uncertainty looms large in a world where animal, human and environmental health have grown dramatically interconnected. To mitigate or prevent animal health threats, The World Organisation for Animal Health is hosting a Global Conference on Biological Threat Reduction this fall. The event stems from the need to improve global health security, spurring action through multisectoral collaborations to advance prevention, preparedness and response capabilities across the world.  

A little over twenty years after the world was shaken to the core by an act of bioterrorism, it is important to remember that only together can the animal health and the security sectors handle potential threats of this sort. The lack of preparedness may make the two systems vulnerable. However, with preparation, collaboration and mutual understanding among key actors, we can make sure that no animal health emergency is mismanaged or left unanswered. A far-sighted, inclusive preparedness strategy is the antidote to the unforeseeable events we are likely to face in the years to come: if we are prepared today, we will save human and animal lives tomorrow. 

Upcoming event

In 2025, Tanzania became the first East African country to have their National Rabies Control Plan officially endorsed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). This milestone underlines the country’s concerted effort to eliminate human deaths from dog-mediated rabies.  

Although Tanzania’s National Rabies Control Plan was officially endorsed at WOAH’s 92^nd General session, the country’s Veterinary Services, directed by Dr Benezeth Lutege Malinda, had been collaborating with local authorities, health professionals, veterinarians, community leaders and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) on this strategy for years. The goal: stop the transmission of dog-mediated rabies in five years.  

“I can say that, for Tanzania, this endorsement is a milestone for our nation,” says Dr Malinda, “it shows that we are determined, as a country, to make sure we utilise and maintain this endorsement, so that by 2030, we’ll be among the countries with zero rabies.” 

Annually, about 1,500 cases of human rabies are reported in Tanzania — a great majority of which originate from dog bites. Stopping transmission cycles at its animal source is a critical step in eliminating the disease. This, supported by dog population management, which are strategies that can include promoting responsible pet ownership, ensuring access to veterinary care, neutering or spaying and education campaigns, could bring this number down to nearly zero.  

Planning for elimination 

Three years of strategy went into Tanzania’s National Rabies Control Plan, which — as one of its main objectives — brought together independent NGOs to work together in pursuit of the same goal. Throughout the years of coordination, the country was able to map the disease, identifying high- and low-risk areas in order to eliminate rabies methodically and progressively.  

We’ve created a sort of ‘rollback’ plan. Some areas are already free from rabies — we can consider them clean — so we focus on keeping them clean while gradually addressing the higher-risk zones. And now, [Tanzania’s Veterinary Services and NGOs] are working as a team, following the analysis we submitted in our dossier.

Dr Benezeth Lutege Malinda, Director of Tanzania’s Veterinary Services and WOAH Delegate.

On top of targeted, NGO-assisted action, public-private partnerships are also a driving force behind Tanzania’s rabies control strategy. “[Rabies] really affects the lower-income communities.” Dr Malinda continues, “And sometimes, the government — especially when acting alone — cannot reach the grassroots where common people are suffering from rabies. But the private sector is present throughout the country.” To strengthen this collaboration between public and private sectors, Tanzania created an initiative called the Tanzania Animal Health Organisation (TAHO), which is dedicated to promoting animal health and welfare in support of the country’s livestock sector. “This has greatly contributed to our efforts in implementing our strategies. The private sector organises itself across different regions, while the government ensures that any barriers are removed so we can achieve our goals.”  

Private-public partnerships also play a key role in easing the financial burden of animal welfare initiatives, like implementing the country’s rabies control plan, by financing certain activities to move things forward. “Right now, for example,” explains Dr Malinda, “there are people already in the field conducting rabies awareness campaigns, neutering programs, and vaccinations — all coordinated through our national portal, with the private sector implementing them on the ground.” 

To ensure a smooth rollout of its National Rabies Control Plan, the country has invested in storage facilities in which vaccines, donated through the private sector or bought by the government, can be reserved for use in emergency situations. This paired with disease surveillance will give the Veterinary Authority a head start if any districts show an unexpectedly high risk of infection. 

Shaping tomorrow 

The success of Tanzania’s National Rinderpest Control Plan, from around 20 years ago, has lit a fire under the country, making it even more motivated to eliminate rabies in the next five years. “In the same spirit, we see rabies as another deadly — but preventable —disease,” affirms Dr Malinda, “We’re very positive. And not only with rabies, we’re also aligning with global efforts on PPR.”

As he looks forward to beginning the process to obtain a third endorsement for the country, Dr Malinda encourages other Members to do the same. According to him, the advantages of endorsement are well worth the effort. The trust that comes from having an official WOAH certification translates into new partnerships, policy changes and investment into the programme and Veterinary Services more broadly.

“I advise my colleagues in other countries: sit down, prepare your dossier. It’s not an easy task — it really requires dedication. You have to sit down, focus, and come up with a strong, scientifically sound document. The scientific committee is very thorough. They evaluate everything, word by word. But once you’re endorsed, it brings a sense of pride and recognition. You see your country up there, and it motivates not only us as Veterinary Professionals, but the whole country and our partners around the world. It’s up to us—as experts, as Directors of Veterinary Services, as professionals in the veterinary field—to take the initiative.” – Dr Benezeth Lutege Malinda.

War and conflict challenge ecosystems unlike anything else, putting them under significant pressure. Armed conflict – like we keep seeing around the world – is closely linked to the deterioration of global health security, allowing infectious diseases to spread more rapidly and uncontrollably.

The Global Peace Index 2024 reveals that the average level of country peacefulness deteriorated by 0.56 per cent from the previous year. This makes the world a far less safe place now than it used to be, with the average level of in-country peacefulness dropping by 4.5 percent between 2008 and 2024. Following a similar negative trend, the economic impact of armed conflict on the global economy in 2023 amounted to losses of $907.5 billion.  

However, the impacts of war extend far beyond the global economy and disruptions of vital supply chains. In a world where harmful pathogens are increasingly accessible and can be easily released, the stakes for animal health security have never been higher.

A broadening threat landscape

The issue of conflict is deeply rooted in history but has a multidimensional, ever-changing nature. Far from being confined to traditional strategies, the arsenal of non-state groups and malicious actors is broad and diverse – and that includes biological threats.  A form of conflict that employs pathogens to cause harm, biological warfare has a long track record in history. Examples of their use date back as far as the Peloponnesian war but can also be found during the First World War.

Disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi are called pathogens.  Zoonotic pathogens can be used as biological warfare agents against animals or humans. Whilst high impact animal pathogens can be directed against animals and food supply chains.

A report published by the World Economic Forum has found that the perceived likelihood of future terrorist attacks is increasing. One growing concern is posed by the developments in biological sciences and the biotech industry. Over the last century, technology has emerged as the one force that’s fundamentally reshaping the modern conflict landscape, making it much easier for non-state groups to exercise and contest power.  

Emerging technologies such as drones, advanced communication systems and other tools supercharged by AI and quantum computing can indeed be used for illicit purposes, including planning and intelligence gathering. This technological breakthrough plays a big role in asymmetric warfare, where opposing forces differ significantly in size or military capability, helping non-state actors conduct operations and strategies that were once exclusively military domain.

According to Emma Ross, who leads the health security workstream within the Global Health Programme at Chatham House, the key concern with biological weapons does not lie in their likelihood of use, but rather in their potential impact.

In today’s world, we are seeing a tangible increase in chemical risk due to global conflicts. When it comes to biological weapons, technology certainly amplifies their destructive potential. Still, the risk of their actual deployment remains more theoretical than immediate. Unlike chemical weapons – which can be more precisely targeted – biological threats are far more difficult to control.

Emma Ross, Lead, Health security workstream, Global Health Programme at Chatham House.

She emphasises that this does not mean we should dismiss the danger.

“We must be wary and prepared for the enormous and unparalleled consequences they could bring.” Pathogens can travel, mutate and spread in unpredictable ways, making them especially difficult to contain. This unpredictability, paired with the fact that biological weapons are relatively inexpensive and accessible, makes them uniquely dangerous. “If there’s something we should fear,” she concludes, “it’s their potential impact. Instead of focusing solely on probability, our attention should shift toward impact and unpredictability”.

How conflict and the use of biological threats intersect

Biological threats could be used in peaceful times by actors seeking to secure their interests. At the same time, they can be magnified by ongoing conflict. In war-torn regions, the vulnerability to biological risks is exponentially greater, as critical animal health infrastructures would normally collapse and surveillance systems falter. Dispute over land access, cultural polarisation and the control of scrambling resources are just some of the underlying factors that may cause tensions within societies and lead to the outbreak of a war.

Conflict creates fertile ground for the deliberate release of biological agents, making these threats more dangerous than ever. Lieutenant Colonel Julio Carvalho from the Portuguese Army Biological and Chemical Defense Laboratory believes that it is important to look at high-security settings during uncertain times. “When you have conflict”, he argues, “the safety of laboratories is one of the first things to be at stake. “When you have war in these settings, these facilities fall out of any jurisdiction of the state.  With conflict, the access or control of labs by State authorities could be impaired and makes the access of non-state actors or belligerents easier and without control or traceability”.

GlobalBiolabs.org has counted over 69 high-security biological research facilities in operation, under construction or planned around the world.  Interestingly, countries with operational BSL4 labs generally score well on governance and stability, but the bulk of planned BSL4 labs are in countries that score in the bottom half of these indexes, mainly due to ongoing conflict, government repression and political instability. WOAH has identified that many laboratories (not necessarily BSL4 labs) that handle and store high impact pathogens and diagnostic material are not sustainable because they are resource intensive and face challenges in maintaining critical infrastructure. Many laboratories built in low to middle income countries are highly engineered and therefore too expensive to operate. These challenges to sustainability undermine both the performance, safety and security of laboratories contributing to increased health and security risks.  “Paradoxically, more laboratories mean more opportunities to access them and accidentally or deliberately release diseases”, continues Carvalho. “Conflict has also the ability to deteriorate surveillance efforts, making the detection of threats more difficult.”

To address the issue, WOAH is working closely with its partners including Global Affairs Canada WTRP, through an initiative called BioPREVAIL aimed at finding solutions to improve the sustainability of laboratories in LMICs.

For Trevor Smith, Co-Chair Biological Security Working Group at the Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction diagnostic containment labs for high consequence pathogens can play a critical role in the global campaign to prevent, detect and respond to deliberate biological threats. “However, most containment labs were designed in and for high-resource countries, and current approaches are not well-suited for sustainable operation and maintenance in lower-resource settings,” he explains.

BioPREVAIL aims to change this, by pioneering a new type of secure, safe, and effective biocontainment facility that can more easily be maintained and sustained in low and middle-income countries.

Trevor Smith, Co-Chair Biological Security Working Group at the Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction.

The challenges ahead: what could be done?

Today, 60% of human pathogens are of animal origin and 75% of emerging animal diseases can be transmitted to humans. Moreover, every global emergency declared in recent years has stemmed from the animal-human interface. The Covid pandemic has made the links between animal and human health even deeper, highlighting the need to continue to strengthen pandemic preparedness worldwide to safeguard the health of our ecosystems.

It is increasingly important to understand the animal health dimension of conflict, which needs to be an integral part of pandemic preparedness efforts. The animal health community plays a crucial role in managing the key national and international security threats that societies face – from biological threats to pandemics.  

However, this is a goal that requires collective effort and cannot be pursued in isolation. To effectively address the intersection of biological threats and conflict, it is essential to establish a collaboration across all actors – emergency agencies, the private sector and communities must work together to strengthen our response. Together, they should prioritise the dissemination of fact-based, verified information from trusted authorities to combat misinformation. Equally important is the development of clear legislation, protocols and guidelines on biological threats, as well as robust intelligence-sharing networks to prevent future attacks, facilitate attribution and deepen everyone’s understanding of emerging threats. Enforcing stringent biosafety laws and maintaining a country-specific list of dangerous pathogens will also be critical in safeguarding global health.

With the security of biological facilities endangered, it is important to make sure that we raise awareness of the impacts of biological threats. WOAH’s programme, Fortifying Institutional Resilience Against Biological Threats, funded by Global Affairs Canada’s Weapons Threat Reduction Program in support of the objectives of the G7-led Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction (GP), was designed to address this need.  

Recognising that the evolving hazard landscape demands a new approach to animal health security, WOAH has taken timely action to enforce multi-sectoral collaboration. Conflict and biothreats – whether accidental or intentional – can amplify each other’s impact, putting ecosystems in unique danger. And when they happen together, the consequences can only be catastrophic. This is why looking at interconnected risks is crucial for building preparedness and long-lasting resilience for a healthier, safer future.

This article first appeared on Global Partnership Against WMD Newsletter [Issue No. 20, July 2025] and is shared here as part of our ongoing collaboration.

From 17 to 20 June 2025, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) organised the third session for facilitators of the serious game ALERT in Grand-Bassam, Côte d’Ivoire, as part of the EU-funded ZOOSURSY project. 

Following sessions in Dakar (Senegal) and Yaoundé (Cameroon), this latest session marks further progress toward more inclusive and participatory epidemiological surveillance, rooted in local communities. 

In total, 14 facilitators from key institutions—including Nangui Abrogoua University, the Ivorian Office of Parks and Reserves, the National School of Water and Forests (ENEF), the army’s veterinary services, the Helmholtz Institute for One Health (HIOH), and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)—received training.

The programme was carried out in partnership with the Directorate of Veterinary Services, technical expertise from CIRAD, and the School of Veterinary Sciences and Medicine at the University of Ngaoundéré (Cameroon).

A playful tool for a vital challenge 

Developed under the EBO-SURSY project in collaboration with CIRAD and BIOVIVA, the ALERT game is far more than just an educational aid. It was designed to raise awareness in local communities about surveillance of animal diseases that could potentially be transmitted to humans, placing these communities at the center of an early warning system. 

Amidst a growing number of health crises, the game also aims to strengthen connections among various actors in the surveillance system—Veterinary Services, local authorities, human health personnel, researchers, and environmental managers—to foster a coordinated and sustainable response. 

Training facilitators to multiply impact 

Over the course of four days, participants were introduced to the game’s objectives, mechanics, and facilitation logic. Facilitating ALERT is about more than knowing the rules—it means creating a safe space for dialogue, encouraging collective reflection, and stimulating community-driven dynamics around good surveillance practices. 

The game is an important educational tool. Becoming a trainer has given me concrete tools to simulate epidemiological surveillance scenarios and to better pass on this knowledge to students and surveillance stakeholders in the communities.

Moctar Mouiche, lecturer-researcher at the University of Ngaoundéré (Cameroon) 

Trained in 2024 in Yaoundé, Moctar Mouiche has since facilitated sessions in Cameroon, Congo, and the Central African Republic—demonstrating the game’s adaptability to various local contexts. 

The training concluded with practical sessions at the National Institute for Agricultural Vocational Training (INFPA) in Bingerville, where around fifty final-year students had the opportunity to test the game in real-world conditions. 

“In the ALERT game, you work as a team to reach a common goal. This game taught me to take others’ opinions into account.” — Student at INFPA

A tool to be shared 

Each participating institution received a game kit, with the mission to integrate it into their training, outreach, or capacity-building activities. Through this network of trained facilitators, WOAH aims to scale up deployment of the game while maintaining active monitoring of its implementation. 

This initiative is part of a broader strategy to build resilient, agile, and locally grounded surveillance systems. In a world where zoonotic diseases pose an increasing threat, strengthening community vigilance through participatory, innovative, and accessible approaches is a public health, social, and environmental imperative. 

The veterinary workforce plays a large role in safeguarding animal health and protecting animal and environmental well-being. Their role in reducing animal diseases has ripple effects that protect livelihoods, local economies, and humans from zoonotic diseases.

However, rural areas tend to see a shortage of veterinarians, leaving animal and human populations unprotected. A lack of veterinary care could mean zoonotic diseases such as rabies or brucellosis could spread unchecked and non-zoonotic diseases like Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and foot and mouth disease (FMD) could run rampant, putting food security in jeopardy. To combat this, Veterinary Paraprofessionals (VPPs) and Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) provide a wide range of services which support veterinarians and fill the gaps in rural animal care.  

Universal training for a strong veterinary workforce 

Together, veterinarians, VPPs and CAHWs work to ensure that the right people, with the right skills are available to provide animal healthcare services to those who need. A prime example of this is the model found in India. Here, university trained veterinarians work together with formally trained VPPs, and non-governmental organisation (NGO) trained CAHWs (otherwise known as Pashu Sakhis) who provide services primarily in remote, rural areas.  

As NGOs may have their own modules and mode of operations for training CAHWs, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) supports Members by ensuring access to the tools necessary to promote a well-trained veterinary workforce such as competency and curriculum guidelines for veterinarians, VPPs and CAHWs.

Dr Abdus Sabur Sheikh, Senior Programme Manager, Livestock Technology and One Health for Passing Gifts Private Limited, subsidiary of Heifer International – an enterprise that trains Pashu Sakhis in India – was a field consultant on the guidelines for CAHWs. According to him, uniform training modules that enhance the skills and education of VPPs and CAHWs will build a more resilient veterinary workforce that offers animal healthcare services to even the most remote areas. 

Working together to improve animal health 

Each member of the veterinary workforce – which includes veterinarians, VPPs and CAHWs – offers a unique expertise that is essential for providing reliable animal health services. Ensuring the training, development and effective coordination of these service providers enhances animal healthcare, especially in underserved communities. This approach has proven successful in India, where veterinary service provision in rural areas is the domain of the VPP and the CAHW. 

Dr. Suman Prasad, a government veterinarian who spoke to us about his experience as part of this model in Bihar, a state in Eastern India, is found most often treating sick animals either at the Veterinary Hospital or in the field or vaccinating large animals against diseases like foot and mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease (LSD), haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) and brucellosis. Alongside this, he works closely with CAHWs who help him vaccinate and deworm animals. 

Mr. Amarjeet Kumar, a VPP working in collaboration with Dr. Prasad, provides small animal husbandry training and backyard poultry training to CAHWs and creates links between them and veterinary hospitals as well as providing animal healthcare in farms and villages. For him, his days consist of field visits to monitor goat shed construction, providing biosecurity training to farmers, supporting CAHWs in the field and treating sick animals.  

Ms. Mira Devi the CAHW of the triad, who works closely with Mr. Kumar, spends most of her days focusing on treating, vaccinating and deworming goats – her principal animal patients – in villages. Her work has helped countless farmers access veterinary care, reduced goat mortality and, being a member of the community, she’s gained the trust of the farmers she visits. Working in tandem with a VPP and a government veterinarian, Ms. Devi supports village counsels (known locally as gram panchayat) and provides last mile animal healthcare.  

“Having the support of a VPP and CAHW is vital to the vaccination process.” says Dr. Prasad of the triad model. In recent years the number of vaccinators, who are independent, has decreased. Some of the vaccinators, who oversee vaccinating large animals against brucellosis, FMD, HS and LSD in their respective gram panchayats, tend to dropout or change their scope of work quite frequently, leaving government veterinarians in the lurch. So, having the help of trained CAHWs – who normally vaccinate smaller animals, like goats – during vaccination drives makes a world of difference. There is also the added advantage of CAHWs being local women who are easily able to interact with Bihar’s majority-female goat farmers and provide preventive veterinary care which reduce mortality and increase productivity and income for rural farmers.  

Continued support for WOAH Members 

This model, however, is not without its challenges. “Sometimes, vaccines come too late to be effective,” says Ms. Devi reflecting on her experience as a CAHW. This sentiment is echoed by Mr. Kumar from his standpoint as a VPP, who adds, “Obtaining medications at the local level is difficult as well as getting the right training on disease diagnosis, disease outbreaks, postmortem data collection and how to properly send samples to laboratories for testing.” Though there is room for improvement, India’s collaborative approach to animal health has proven effective, showcasing the significant impact of a well-coordinated veterinary workforce.

Veterinarians, VPPs and CAHWs are at the forefront of animal disease surveillance, prevention and control. WOAH is committed to continuously provide the support and capacity its Members need to equip their Veterinary Services to respond to the threats of animal diseases and outbreaks. By keeping animals safe, Members protect and empower their communities and keep their economies growing.  A well-trained, well-equipped veterinary workforce is essential to ensure the health and well-being of animals and the people who depend on them. 

Read more about how we support our Members in creating a stronger veterinary workforce: PVS Pathway – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health 

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a cross-border disease caused by a virus that affects goats and sheep, severely compromising their health and leading to significant economic losses. Although PPR has historically been present in Africa, Middle East and Asia, its emergence in Europe has been intensifying in recent years. Between 2024 and 2025 alone, new outbreaks were reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) in Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Hungary. The latest first occurrence of the disease in a new country was reported through the World Animal Health Information System in Albania, on 3 June 2025. 

According to the new State of the World’s Animal Health report, PPR is not only controllable, but also eradicable. The Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR, developed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), outlines a clear path to end PPR, where vaccination play a crucial role, together with capacity building, biosecurity and surveillance measures. Valuable lessons on how to use vaccines to tackle PPR can be drawn from countries and regions with long-standing experience in managing the disease, such as Morocco, in Africa.  

Vaccination is key  

The first occurrence of PPR in Morocco was reported in 2008, when more than 2,300 sheep and 200 goats died during several outbreaks across the country over a seven-month period. The response of the Moroccan Veterinary Services was swift and effective: from 2008 to 2010, 90% of the animals susceptible to PPR were vaccinated annually. Based on data analysis, serological investigations, and the regional epidemiological situation, the strategy was later adjusted. Since 2020, the Veterinary Services decided to vaccinate animals both for PPR and sheep pox once every two years, using a bivalent vaccine.  

With 22.4 million animals vaccinated in each campaign, vaccination has become a key tool to control the resurgence of PPR in the country, as Dr. Abderrahman El Abrak, WOAH Delegate for Morocco, explains: “In Morocco, as in other countries in the Maghreb and other African countries, animals are moved quite frequently. It is practically difficult to adopt a PPR control strategy based solely on sanitary measures, because controlling animal movements is very difficult, if not impossible under current conditions.”

This is why we believe that adopting an approach combining vaccination with other sanitary measures as a mean of controlling and eradicating a disease such as PPR is the most appropriate choice for our context, despite its cost, and the results obtained from this vaccination approach are perceptible. The use of effective, high-quality vaccines is also essential to the success of the vaccination strategy. 

Dr. Abderrahman El Abrak,
WOAH Delegate for Morocco.

Developing partnerships and trust 

A vaccination campaign against PPR costs Morocco an average 12 million dollars, with 75% of the budget allocated to veterinary workforce and the remaining 25% to vaccine doses, which are locally produced. Since the 1980s, Morocco has invested in developing its private veterinary sector, encouraging veterinaries to establish practices in rural areas. Their presence not only ensures regular support to farmers but also provides an effective network of professionals on which animal health authorities can promptly when vaccination campaigns need to be deployed.  

We have a well-developed private veterinary sector in almost every region of Morocco, which provides significant support in conducting livestock vaccination campaigns against several animal diseases, particularly PPR, helping us to achieve a very high vaccination coverage rate.

Dr. Abderrahman El Abrak,
WOAH Delegate for Morocco.

“Their support has been crucial in reaching our objectives, particularly in covering as many livestock farmers as possible at national level, as well as raising awareness and motivating farmers to participate in the vaccination campaigns.”, adds Dr. Abderrahman El Abrak, WOAH Delegate for Morocco.

The Veterinary Services have cooperated with Moroccan pharmaceutical companies from the beginning to produce a vaccine against PPR. As of today, two companies are producing effective PPR vaccines in Morocco. This enables the country to access reliable, field-tested vaccines at competitive prices, while minimising the risk of supply shortages during large-scale vaccination campaigns. 

Investment and cooperation are needed to succeed 

With the last outbreak officially declared over in December 2022, Morocco has demonstrated that it is possible to effectively control PPR through vaccination. This requires investments and preparation, made possible in part by the development of public-private partnerships. 

On the other hand, PPR remains a transboundary disease, closely linked to animal movement, as Dr. Abderrahman El Abrak points out: “Given the difficulty of effectively and sustainably controlling the risks associated with illegal animal movements across border, the only way to control this risk is through a coordinated regional and sub-regional approach to fighting the disease. In fact, a single country cannot achieve its goal of eradicating a transboundary disease like PPR on this own, as the risk of illegal introduction cannot be completely eliminated. Therefore, it is essential for other countries to implement similar control strategies so that we can stop the circulation of the virus across different regions. Without a coordinated regional approach to PPR control, it will be difficult for us to eradicate the disease based on our own efforts alone. That being said, PPR eradication is possible”. 

Read the full chapter on PPR in the State of the World’s Animal Health.