The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) is closely monitoring the rapid spread of the novel mpox strain amongst humans due to the zoonotic nature of the virus. 

The current upsurge in the novel strain of mpox (clade 1b) in humans from a growing number of countries in Africa, along with sporadic cases in Asia and Europe, has led to its classification as a public health emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization (WHO). 

First discovered in 1958, mpox is caused by an Orthopoxvirus called Monkeypox virus (MPXV). Endemic to West and Central Africa, the virus is found in both animals (rodents, non-human primates and other mammals) and humans. The disease can cause clinical signs like skin lesions, scabs, fever and swollen lymph nodes in both animals and humans. In some cases, it does not cause any apparent clinical signs. MPXV can be transmitted from animals to humans, as well as from humans to animals.

As of 23 August 2024, WOAH has not received any confirmed reports of MPXV clade 1b in animals. Although WOAH Members are required to officially notify listed diseases, and MPXV is not a listed disease, they are encouraged to inform WOAH about the identification of MPXV in animals. 

WOAH is responding to this challenge by actively encouraging its Members to report confirmed cases of mpox in animals, as well as to take appropriate risk mitigation measures. To reduce the risk of human to animal transmission, WOAH has developed guidance for various risk groups. To raise awareness on the topic, WOAH has also developed a set of online resources including prevention and diagnosis strategies for animals. In addition, WOAH is constantly consulting its Reference Centres and expert groups on mpox and emerging diseases, while collaborating with its partners like WHO to take a One Health approach.  

WOAH calls on its Members to: 

  • Consider mpox as a differential diagnosis in animals showing clinical signs compatible with the disease, and that have been previously exposed to human cases. 
  • Inform WOAH, via [email protected], about the occurrence of cases of mpox in animals and submit genetic sequences to public databases. 
  • Consult WOAH’s resources and guidance to reduce the risk of mpox in animals.  
  • Ensure effective coordination and communication using a One Health approach, between wildlife services, Veterinary Services and public health services. 

WOAH calls on the public to: 

  • Take appropriate hygiene and biosecurity measures, such as washing hands and using personal protective equipment, before and after handling animals from a household with a probable or confirmed human mpox case. 
  • Do not approach or touch animals that are sick or found dead in endemic areas.  
  • Inform your veterinarian if any companion animals, domestic animals or wildlife were exposed to mpox and show clinical signs compatible with the disease.  

WOAH is fully committed to supporting its Members and other stakeholders to monitor and mitigate the risks associated with mpox. We will continue to engage with our networks of Reference Centres, experts and partners, to take a One Health approach and provide updates as more information becomes available.  

Updated on 8 May 2024

The ongoing spread of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) in different regions of the world, alongside the recent detections of cases in cattle, is raising concerns within the international community.

While HPAI primarily affects poultry and wild birds, avian influenza can occasionally be transmitted to mammals, including humans. In the last two years, an increasing number of H5N1 avian influenza cases are being reported in terrestrial and aquatic mammalians animals.

The recently reported detections of HPAI in dairy cattle in the United States of America, have raised international concerns. Infected cattle may be asymptomatic or with mild illness showing non-specific clinical signs such as decreased milk production, thicker-colostrum‐like milk, reduced appetite, lethargy, fever and dehydration. These infections in cattle could indicate an increased risk of H5N1 viruses becoming better adapted to mammals, and potentially spilling over to humans and other livestock.  

Initial investigations so far have revealed that raw milk from infected cows is a high-risk material. Thus, only milk produced by healthy cows should be commercialised. There are evidence of horizontal virus transmission from infected lactating cows to other animals including cows, cats and poultry.  No specific adaptation of the virus to either humans or mammals was identified. Several studies are being carried out to further explore the pathogenesis and transmission routes of these viruses, including among cattle and from cattle to other animals. 

In collaboration with its Reference Centres, our networks of experts and Members, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) is closely monitoring the situation to assess the risks to animals, but also to humans, which is currently considered low. Timely and transparent reporting is crucial to maintain a good understanding of the disease situation and prevent any type of misinformation or disinformation. 

WOAH reminds its 183 Members that, based on the information currently available, restrictions to the international trade of healthy cattle and their products are not recommended unless justified by an import risk analysis conducted according to the WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code Chapter 2.1.  

WOAH calls on its Members to: 

  • Maintain enhanced avian influenza SURVEILLANCE in domestic and wild birds.  
  • INCLUDE HPAI as a differential diagnosis, in non-avian species, including cattle and other livestock populations, with high risk of exposure to HPAI viruses, in particular:  
    • Animals showing clinical signs compatible with avian influenza; 
    • Sick or dead domestic animals near affected premises;   
    • Suspected, including apparently healthy animals, that have been exposed to or epidemiologically linked to suspected or confirmed HPAI in birds or cattle (i.e. situated in HPAI high-risk areas or in areas where avian influenza has been confirmed).
  • REPORT cases of HPAI in all animal species, including unusual hosts, to WOAH through its World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). Genetic sequences of avian influenza viruses should be shared in publicly available databases. 
  • CONSIDER poultry vaccination as complementary avian influenza control measure;  PREVENT the introduction and spread of the disease by implementing strict biosecurity measures in livestock holdings, in particular in milking parlour and EMPLOY good production and hygiene practices when handling animal products. Raw milk or raw milk products from HPAI infected cows or exposed to those infected with HPAI should not be used to feed animals or for human consumption.
  • PROTECT  humans in close contact with or handling sick cattle or other sick livestock and their products. Exposed humans should always take precautionary measures to avoid getting infected and minimize the risk to mechanically carry the virus that could infect livestock or companion animals. This should include wearing personal protective equipment, avoiding visiting other livestock premises after the exposure and implementing standard food safety measures when handling animal products from exposed livestock.  
  • AVOID implementing unjustified trade restrictions. Import risk management measures should be scientifically justified and in line with the WOAH International Standards.

Technical guidelines for the adaptation of diagnostic tests for Influenza A in animals including cattle and other species as well as different types of samples such as milk and nasal swabs are available in the OFFLU website and will be regularly updated.  

WOAH is fully committed to supporting its Members to mitigate the risks associated with avian influenza. We will continue to engage with our networks of experts, OFFLU,  as well as public and private partners, notably through the One Health Quadripartite and the Global Framework for Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF-TADs) to provide technical updates as more information becomes available.

    Overview

    Last updated 12 August 2022

    What is mpox ?

    Mpox is a viral zoonotic disease caused by infection with the mpox virus that occurs in animals primarily in tropical rainforest areas of Central and West Africa and is occasionally exported to other regions. The virus that causes the mpox disease belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus in the family Poxviridae.

    The Orthopoxvirus genus also includes variola virus (which caused smallpox, an eradicated disease), vaccinia virus (used in the smallpox vaccine), and cowpox virus.

    In areas where mpox is endemic in animals, the virus that causes mpox is thought to be maintained in nature through circulation among a number of susceptible mammals, namely wild rodents (including squirrels and rats), with occasional spill-over to non-human primates and humans.

    The virus that causes mpox has been reported in animals outside of endemic areas, in imported primates, and in pet prairie dogs (rodents of the genus Cynomys) where infection was initially introduced to North America through imported rodents.

    More recently, infection with the virus that causes mpox was reported in a pet domestic dog (genus Canis) found in close proximity to infected humans.

    How is mpox transmitted?

    Transmission of the virus that causes mpox can occur when a person or susceptible animal comes into contact with the virus from an animal, human, or materials contaminated with the virus. The virus enters the body through skin lesions (even if not visible to the naked eye), respiratory tract, or mucous membranes.

    The virus that causes mpox is transmitted from infected animals to humans or other susceptible animals by direct inoculation via bites, scratches or by direct contact with the body fluids and/or the meat of an infected animal during hunting and other activities involving susceptible animal species.

    Human-to-human transmission occurs mainly through close physical contact (e.g., face-to-face, skin-to-skin, mouth-to-mouth, mouth-to-skin contact including during sex). Ulcers, lesions or sores present in the mouth or throat can be infectious, meaning the virus can spread through saliva and respiratory droplets (and possibly short-range aerosols), in some cases. More studies are needed on whether the virus can spread from breathing and talking.

    Human to animal transmission has been suspected in cases of pet dogs which had close contact with their owners who were symptomatic. The dogs showed mucocutaneous lesions and tested positive on PCR.

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    Can animals be affected?

    Various wild mammals have been shown to be susceptible to the virus that causes mpox. This includes rope squirrels, tree squirrels, Gambian pouched rats, dormice, non-human primates, among others. Although it may depend on the route of transmission and infectious dose, some species are asymptomatic, especially species suspected of being reservoirs (rodents). Other mammals, such as monkeys and great apes, show skin rashes similar to those experienced by humans.

    The infection that causes mpox has also been reported in pet prairie dogs (rodents of the genus Cynomys), which were initially infected by imported rodents, and most recently in a pet domestic dog (genus Canis) as a result of human to animal transmission.

    What is WOAH doing?

    WOAH is working with its experts and partners, such as WHO, to gather the latest scientific information and reports from the field. WOAH collates this information and shares it transparently with its members and the general public, aiming to help decision makers to make risk-based decisions considering the latest scientific evidence and avoid unnecessary barriers to trade.

    Prevention and control

    Last updated 12 August 2022

    What to do when coming across a suspected animal case?

    Notify to WOAH

    Countries are encouraged to report cases of mpox in animals to WOAH as significant animal health information as described in Article 1.1.5 of the Terrestrial Animal Health Code.

    Notify by email

    Ensure good coordination and communication

    using a One Health approach, between wildlife services, veterinary services and public health services.

    Use personal protective equipment

    including gloves, masks, and disposable protective clothing.

    Take samples if possible

    for testing for the presence of virus or evidence of exposure to the virus and send them to the national veterinary or reference laboratory (see sample types below).

    How to reduce the potential risk of humans infecting animals?

    Mpox is a zoonotic disease, and there is a risk of spillback to susceptible animals. Therefore, collaboration between public health and veterinary authorities is important when managing the risk of human-to-animal transmission. This will help to prevent the disease from being transmitted from humans to susceptible animals at home, in zoos and wildlife reserves, and also to peri-domestic animals, especially rodents.

    How can the virus that causes mpox be detected in animals?

    Clinical Signs

    The appearance of clinical signs, including the presence of visible skin lesions, is variable and dependent on multiple factors, including the host species, host age, and the mpox virus clade.  Detailed clinical signs for individual species can be found by clicking on this link. However, with respect to the mpox clade currently circulating in humans, no publicly available clinical or experimental animal susceptibility data is presently available.

    In species that present clinical signs of infection with virus that causes mpox, animal health professionals should be on the lookout for:

    • Skin lesions (including rashes, papules, pustules, and/or pruritis; affecting part or entire body)
    • Increase in body temperature (pyrexia)
    • Reduced appetite (anorexia)
    • Depression
    • Lethargy
    • Dehydration
    • Oral ulcers
    • Facial edema
    • Conjunctivitis and/or ocular discharge
    • Respiratory signs (including coughing, sneezing, dyspnea, and/or nasal discharge)
    • Abnormal lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy)
    • Diarrhea
    Recommended Samples
    • Samples from skin lesions (including scabs)
    • Samples from affected organs (during necropsy)
    • Swabs: conjunctival, oral, nasal, oropharyngeal, and/or anal
    • Scabs
    • Whole blood
    • Serum (for indirect detection or serology)
    Recommended Diagnostic Tests
    Direct Detection (virus)
    • Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR, including real-time and conventional) assays * #
    • Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays*
    • Virus isolation *
    • Electron microscopy *
    • Sequencing *

    * Further confirmation by sequencing is recommended, especially when pan-orthopoxvirus PCR or LAMP assays are employed. Whole genome sequencing is encouraged, where possible.
    # When available, real-time PCR is preferred to conventional PCR. High genome copy numbers may be expected in suspected monkeypox lesions. Real time PCR positive samples with low genome copy numbers (Ct values above 30) should be reconfirmed by repeat sampling and testing, coupled with additional diagnostic tests, including the analysis of seroconversion.

    Indirect Detection (antibodies)
    • Immunofluorescence *
    • ELISA (validated) *
    • Virus Neutralisation Assay *

    * Indirect detection is currently restricted to orthopoxvirus specific assays. Testing both acute and convalescent serum samples is recommended. The assays, especially ELISA, should be validated.

    Overall Interpretation of Diagnostic Test Results for Confirming Human to Animal Spillback

    A mpox disease or infection must be confirmed by using a combination of epidemiological features, clinical signs, and suitable diagnostic assays. A suspected monkeypox spillback event (animals getting mpox from humans) should satisfy three conditions, including the confirmation of the case (infection or disease) in the human, confirmation of the case in the animal, and the establishment of a confirmed link between the human and the animal case (which could include epidemiological, spatial, temporal, genetic, and seroconversion links, amongst others).

    It is recommended that new cases, especially those occurring in new geographical locations or animal species, should be confirmed by a national or international reference laboratory.

    What messages should be conveyed to at-risk communities to reduce risk of spillover events?

    As a general principle, wash hands after handling wild animals

    Take precautions to avoid being bitten or scratched by animals

    Avoid contact with susceptible animals

    Do not touch wild animals that are sick or have died of unknown causes

    Do not eat raw wild animal meat, uncooked or undercooked food, and food made with wild animal blood

    Immediately inform the Veterinary or Wildlife Services if you find a sick or dead wild animal

    Visit a health centre as soon as possible in case of a scratch or bite from a wild animal

    People who are suspected or confirmed to be infected with monkeypox virus should…

    …seek medical attention and avoid close direct contact with animals, including domestic pets, livestock, and other captive animals, as well as wildlife.

    How do we prevent future mpox virus spillovers?

    Current outbreaks of mpox in humans outside of areas where the virus is known to be endemic in animals appear to be driven by human-to-human transmission.

    However, the virus has an animal origin. In areas where the virus is endemic in animals good practices in interacting with wildlife, as described above, can reduce the risk of future spillover events from animals to humans. In fact, these practices should always be followed to avoid risks from a number of pathogens and to protect both humans and wildlife.

    To avoid spillover from humans to animals, people who are suspected or confirmed to be infected with the virus that causes mpox should avoid close direct contact with animals, including domestic animals (such as cats, dogs, hamsters, ferrets, gerbils, etc.), livestock and other captive animals, as well as wildlife. People should be particularly vigilant around animals known to be susceptible, such as rodents, non-human primates etc.

    WOAH highlights that unregulated trade in wildlife (including wildlife meat and products) and other mammals can lead to the international spread of diseases such as mpox.

    Events in animals

    Last updated 12 August 2022

    Cases of mpox events in animals reported to WOAH since December 2022

    MemberSpecies affectedDate of the first reportLinks to WAHIS+
    Congo (Dem. Rep. of)Pig08/12/2022Situation update no. 1 (08/12/2022)
    CameroonChimpanzee15/08/2016Follow-up report no. 55 (29/12/2022)

    Introduction

    Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory infection of humans and dromedary camels which is caused by a coronavirus called Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).

    Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) have been confirmed by several studies to be the natural host and zoonotic source of the MERS-CoV infection in humans. Other species may be susceptible to infection with MERS-CoV. However, their epidemiological significance has not been proven.

    MERS-CoV has been associated with mild upper respiratory signs in some dromedary camels. While the impact of MERS-CoV on animal health is very low, human infections has a significant public health impact.